Pisces: India

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Faunal Diversity in India: Pisces

This is an extract from FAUNAL DIVERSITY IN INDIA Edited by J. R. B. Alfred A. K. Das A. K. Sanyal. ENVIS Centre, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta. 1998 ( J. R. B. Alfred was Director, Zoological Survey of India)

Introduction

Fishes are aquatic cold-blooded vertebrates that have gills for respiration throughout life and limbs, if any, are in the shape of fins and are primarily dependent on water as a medium in which to live. Fish exhibit enormous diversity in their morphology, habitat and biology. Unlike other commonly recognized vertebrate groups, fishes are a heterogeneous assemblage. From lamprey and hagfish to lungfish '!fld flatfish, they include a vast array of distantly related vertebrates. Many are even more closely related to mammals than to certain other fish. According to evolutionary theory, which is based on evidence including fossils, comparative anatomy, embryology and genetics, fishes have a distant place in the ancestry of man. Their ancient ancestry on earth's surface antedates ape-like ancestors of man by some 500 million years and all other vertebrates by more than 100 million years. This has allowed a vast span of time for evolutionary divergence and for the origin and extinction of major phyletic lines. Even the modern bony fishes or teleosts, had their origin as long as 200 million years, in the Triassic period, when the majl'r groups (classes and subclasses) of fishes were firmly established. Man might never have evolved without piscine ancestry. Many features of life ways and structure of man were originated or were already present aeons of time in fishy ancestors. These features include the ground plans and basic functions of the organ systems, including such striking features as sight, internal fertilization, intrauterine nourishment (including placenta), live birth and presumably learning and memory.

The living fishes are divided into 4 classes, viz., Myxini, Cephalaspidomorphi, Chondrichthyes and Osteichthyes, out of which 2 classes, viz., Chondrichthyes and Osteichthyes are represented in India. STATUS OF THE TAXON Global and Indian Status Fishes comprise about half the total number of vertebrates. Nelson (1984) estimated 21,723 extent species of fish under 4,044 genera, 445 families and 50 orders in the world, compared with 21,450 exlilnl tetrapods ( a total of almost 43,173 recognized vertebrate species have been described). Other workers, for various reasons, have arrived at different estimates, most of which range between 17,000 and 30,000 for the numbers of currently recognised fish species. Some groups are expanding with newly described species, whereas others are decreasing, for species are being synonymised faster than the new ones are described. However, a net increase is shown every year and the number of new species of fishes described annually exceeds that of the new tetrapods. The eventual number of living fish species may be close to 28,000 in the world. Day (1889) described 1418 species of fish under 342 genera from the British India. Subsequently almost 275 species were added, which were dredged by the RI.M.$. Investigator from the deep waters. Jayaram (1981) listed 742 freshwater species of fishes under 233 genera, 64 families and 16 orders from the Indian region. Talwar (1991) estimated 2546 species of fish belonging to 969 genera, 254 families and 40 orders. The Indian fish species population represent 11.72 per cent of species, 23.96 per cent of genera, 57 per cent of families and 80 per cent of orders of the global fishes.

Distribution

The distribution of marine fishes is rather wide, and some genera are common to the Indo-Pacific and the Atlantic regions. 57 per cent of the Indian marine fish genera are common to the Indian seas and to the Atlantic and Mediterranean. Fishes have adapted themselves to diverse habitats along the coasts of the Indian subcontinent, whether rocky, sandy or muddy and amongst coral reefs, in deep sluggish rivers or in fast torrential streams, in lakes, 'ponds and wells, in estuaries, coastal lagoons and backwaters or total darkness in caves to higher elevations in the Himalayan mountains. The most diversity and abundance is found in the intertidal zone along the coast and in the coral reef ecosystems of the Gulf of Kutch, the Gulf of Cambay, the Gulf of Mannar, Lakshadweep, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the Malabar coast, of the Indian Peninsula and the North-East India particularly along the bases of the Himalayas.

Biological Diversity And Its Special Features

The Indian fish fauna is divided into two classes, viz., Chondrichthyes and Osteichthyes. The Chondrichthyes (those with cartilaginous skeleton) are represented by 131 species under 67 genera, 28 families and 10 orders in Faunal Diver.;ity in India

the Indian region. The cartilaginous fishes constitute a relatively small part of the global fish fauna. These fishes (sharks, skates and rays) form one of the important commercial fisheries in india. The annual average landings of the Indian chondrichthyes is 33,442 tonnes, of which 15,537 tonnes come from the east coast and 17,605 tonnes come from the west coast and the rest come from the Andaman and Nicobar, and Lakshadeep Islands.

The Indian Osteichthyes (those with bony skeleton) are represented by 2415 species belonging to 902 genera, 226 families and 30 orders. If the North-Eastern states are extensively surveyed for the freshwater fishes and our seas are properly explored particularly the deep sea fishes, many more fishes (15%) will be added to the already existing fishes.

Endemic Species

The Fish fauna of India contains 2 endemic families, viz., Parapsilorhynchidae and Horaichthyidae. The fishes of the family Parapsilorhynchidae are small hill stream fishes comprising of a single genus, Parapsilorllynclllls with 3 species, viz., P. discopllorlls Hora, P. prateri Hora and Misra and P. tentaclIlatlls (Annandale) found in the Western Ghats, Satpura Mountains and the Bailadila range in Madhya Pradesh <mly. The family Horaichthyidae includes a monotypic genus, Horaic1lthys containing a single species;'H. setnai Kulkarni occurring along the West coast of India from the Gulf of Kutch of Gujarat to Trivandrum of Kerala. Among the Indian families of fishes, the family Cyprinidae, the largest and the most dominating freshwater fishes of immense economic value in India; contain maximum number of endemic species (97 species), followed by the family Balitoridae (46 species) and the family Sisoridae (21 species) in India. The family Balitoridae (formerly Homalopteridae) consists of 2 subfamilies, viz., (i) Balitorinae (comprising" of Balitora, Blzavania, Homaloptera and Travancoria) and (ii) Noemacheilinae (comprising of Aboriclltllys Triplopllysa and Noemaclleillls). The fishes of the subfamily Balitorinae occur in the hills of Meghalaya and along the eastern Himalayas up to the Tista and Kosi drainage on one side and the Western Ghats of the peninsular India on the other side. The fishes the subfamily Noemacheilinae (loaches) inhabit in the mountain and submountainous region of India. The fishes of the family Sisoridae (sucker catfishes) show the greatest diversity in India.

The fishes of India contain 223 endemic species, representing 8.75 per cent of the fish species known to India (Table -1) and 127 monotypic genera representing 13.10 per cent of the Indian genera of fishes (Table -2).

Table -1 Number of species of fishes endemic to India Order Family Genera (N) Species (N) Anguilliformes Ophichthidae 1 1 Clupeiformes Clupeidae 2 2 Cypriniformes Cyprinidae 22 97 Parapsilorhynchidae 1 3 Balioridae 6 46 Cobitidae 4 8 Siluriformes Bagridae 5 10 Siluridae 3 3 Schibeidae 6 6 Sisoridae 7 21 Clariidae 2 3 Olyridae 1 1 Cyprinodonitiformes Hemiramphidae 2 2 Horaichthyidae 1 1 Synbranchidae 1 2 Chandidae 1 1 Nandidae 1 1 Cichlidae 1 1 Gobiidae 79 Eleotrididae 1 1 Mastacembelidae 1 1 Chaudhuriidae 1 2 Tetraodontiformes Tetraodontidae 1 1 Total 6 23 78 223 Table-2 Monotypic genera of fishes found in india Order Genera Orectolobiformes : Rlliniodon, Stegostoma, Nebrills Hexanchiformes : Heptranchias Carcharhiniformes : Chaenogalells, Hemigalells, Hemipristis, Galeocerdo, Lamiopsis, Loxodon, Prionace, Scoliodon, Triaenodon, £lIsphyra Faunal Diversity in India Table -2 -contd. Order Genera Pristiformes : Rajiformes : Myliobatiformes : Anguilliformes : Clueiformes : Gonorhynchiformes : Cypriniformes : Siluriformes : Stomiiformes : Aulopiformes : Ophidiiformes : Lophiiformes : Cyprinodontiformes : Zeiformes: Perciformes : Tetraodontiformes : Anoxypristis Rltina Hyp%pltlls Thyrsoidea, Gavialiceps Dayel/a, Eltirava, Hi/sa, Raconda Chanos Lepidopygopsis, Diptyc1ws, Ptychobarblls, Oreichthys, RoMee, SecllriCII/a, Benga/a, Cat/a, B/JQvonia, Travancoria, Enobarbicltthys Neoellcirr/lic1ltllys, Somi/eptes HorabagrllS, Rama, Wallago, Pinniwallago, NeotropillS, Proeutropiichthys, Amb/yceps, Conta, Corag/anis, Erethistoides Pselldecheneis, Sisor, Horag/anis, Ketenglls, Batrachocep/la/lIs, Osteogeneioslls Trip/ophos Tracltinocepha/fls Tallredopllidillm, Spot/obrlltll/a Lophiomlls Ell/eptorhamp/uls, Xenentodon, Horaichtllys Cyt/opsis Psammoperca, Cromiteptes, Sillaginopsis, LactarillS, Rachycentron, AtropllS, Elagatis, Gnathanodon, Megalaspis, Nallcrates, Selaroides, Seriolina, Ulna, Apo/ectlls, Mene, Aprion, Lipochei/IIS, Dipterygonotlls, Gymnocaesio, Lobotes, Datnioides, Pentaprion, Diagramma, Crenidens, Gnathodentex, Monotaxis, Wattsia, Macrospinosa,. Chrysochir, Daysciaena, Dendrophysa, Katlla/a, Otolithoides, Paranibea, Protonibea, Eplrippus, Tripterodon, Badis, Rltinomllgil, Pleuroscoplls, CIliramenrl, Apocryptes, OXllderces, lncara, Ophie/eotris, Op/liocara, Odontamblyoplls, Paracanthurlls, Acanthocybillm, Gymnosarda, KatsllwonllS, Xiphias, Ctenops, E/elltherochir Takifllgu, Amb/yrhyncltotes, Tydemania, Mephisto, Pselldotriacon tll/ls, Trixiphic1lthys, Aba/istes, Chilomyctenls, Lophodiodon, Ranzania, Mola BARMAN: Pisces

Introduced (Exotic) Species

The history of introduced (exotic) fishes in the Indian water is more than a century old. The first such introduction can be said to be that of the English trout, Sa/mo fruita fario Linnaeus which Day in 1863 and 1867 attempted to intr?duce in the Nilgiri waters. However, it was Wilson in 1906 who succeeded with the rainbow trout. Different species of the genera, viz., Sa/mo, Sa/velinus and Ollcllorllync/llls of the family Salmonidae have been introduced at different times in the Indian waters. The members of this family are primarily denizens of the Arctic and northern seas. These fishes have been mainly introduced for game purposes and even now to a large extent they are fished for similar reasons. The gold fish, Carassius aura filS Linnaeus and Carassius carassius Linnaeus, which occur in nature all over China, Korea, Japan, Taiwan, Europe, Siberia, East Asia, South to North Vietnam; have been introduced all over India as aquarium pet. The tench or shoemaker, Tinea tinea (Linnaeus) which naturally occurs in the freshwater of Europe and Western Siberia and part of Aral seas basin has been introduced into India. Both these gold fish and the tench or shoemaker were introduced in• the Doty Lake in 1874 by Maclvor as sport and ornamental fishes.

These are now well established in the Nilgiri waters. Some other fishes have been introduced for commercial purposes. The silver carp, Hypopthalmichthys molitrix (Valenciennes), a native of South and Central Chinese rivers (River West and Yangtze) has been introduced in India and many other countries. This species was brought to India from Japan in 1959 and introduced in the ponds of CIFRI's fish culture division at Cuttack. The Bighead carp, Hypopt/la/michlhys nobilis (Richardson) naturally found in China has been introduced in the Indian waters for cultural purposes. The grass carp (also called white Amur), Ctenopharhyngodon idella (Valenciennes), a riverine freshwater of Amur region (Siberia and Manchuria), North and South China, U.S.S.R., lower reaches of river Amur, has been introduced in India from Hong Kong in 1959. The consignment of grass carp was brought to Calcutta in 1959. The tilapia, Oreochromis mossambica (Peters), a riverine fish was introduced from its original home of East coast of Africa. It was brought from Bangkok and introdcued in India in 1952. The gourami, Osphronemus gorami (Lacepede) was introduced from its natural habitats of Indonesia, Thailand, Malaya and Vietnam. It was first introduced in Calcutta during the first half of the last century from Java. A second lot was brought to Tamil Nadu from Mauritius in 1865. The common carp, Cyprilllis carpio carpio Linnaeus with 3 of its varieties naturally found in China, Korea, Japan, Taiwan and Europe have been introduced in India at different times for cultural purposes. Two top minnows, Gambusia afffinis patruelis (Baird and Girard) and Poecilia reticulalus (Peters) naturally found in America have been introduced in India.

Value

fishes, like many other forms of life, are of immense value to mankind. They are sources of protein, vitamins, minerals and a number of by-products such as liver oil, body oil, fish meal, fish flour, fish glue, isinglass, fish skin, fish protein, etc. The different speices of marine and freshwater fishes can be used for a variety of purposes like food, sport, ornament and biological control. They have been a staple item in the diet of many people. Today they form an important element in the economy of many countries. Adverse effects (e.g., from the poisonous and man-eating species) are of immense concern in some areas. They are used as general indicators of pollution, partly to the direct benefit of mankind and partly to protect what people consider a valuable and necessary part of their heritage and life. Shark liver oil is considered to be a good source of vitamins and as such it has considerable medicinal value. This is why humanity should be concerned about preserving specifically the diversity of the fishes.

Threats

There has been a considerable decline in the freshwater fishes of India in general and food and game fishes in particular. This decline is mainly due to indiscriminate fishing/exploitation and habitat alteration like dynamiting of rivers, construction of dams across rivers, over utilization of water, cutting down of forests, mismanaged farm lands and erosion, pollution by factory chemicals, competition from the introduced species, etc. Dams and weirs at higher reaches of tributaries of the major rivers of India have affected the world famous game fishes, the Mahaseers of India. The spawning runs of Mahaseers (species of Tor) and Neolissocheillls hexagonolepis have been affected. Mahaseers which used to grow to a size of 150 cm and a weight of 25 to 30 kg in the earlier days, have depleted and now catches of more than 5 kg size are rare. Dams and increased large-scale extraction of gravel stones (spawning niche of Mahaseers), silting of lakes and reservoirs are causes or threats for the decline. The shrinkage of wetland ecosystems is another threat to the production and growth of the freshwater fishes in particular.

Marine fishes are, however, not as much in danger as their counterpart in the freshwater ecosystems. But it should be kept in mind that the seas are not the place for the ultimate drainage of all kinds of waste products, as the seas harbour/ shelter irmumerable aquatic creatures which are proViding the mankind with different kinds of daily necessities. The pollutions of the seas or oceans will definitely affect the life of the terrestrial fauna.

Conservation And Future Course Of Action

Fish and fisheries playa key role in bridging the yawning gap between the supply and demand in animal protein, in providing employment opportunities, international trade and in furthering the international co¬operation among the developed and developing countries. In fact, it is the backbone of the economy to many island states. Keeping it in mind that the fishes are sources of protein, vitamins, minerals and a number of by-products necessary for the mankind, we should be very careful on the indiscriminate exploitation and habitat alteration of the fishing ground for protecting and preserving the diversity of fishes. Where dams and weirs are necessary to construct, the probability of the effect on the fish fauna should be carefully considered. Chemical wastes from the factories should not be allowed to drain their products in the water bodies. The shrinkage of the wetland ecosystems should be halted and undersized fish specimens should not be allowed/permitted to collect.

The world over, there is a greater concern today about conservation and management of the fish and fisheries resources and protection of environment than ever before. We must remember that the resources we exploit from the sea are bestowed to us by nature, to be preserved and handed over to next generations. We have no right to cause irreversible damage to the resource base, i.e., the fish fauna. It is, therefore, very essential that we give a high priority for the proper management and conservation of the marine fishery resources and especially the coastal fishery resources which is in occupation to the coastal people of India from the time immemorial, forming an integral part of the country's maritime heritage. Under the existing open access condition, fishermen are involved in a race to ensure their fair share of available fish stock and as long as this system continues, one can not expect responsible fishing. Fishermen should be told that they are only the custodians of the fishery resources and it is their responSibility to maintain their sustainability. The care of the fishes, proper stocking of water body, observance of the legal size limits and permitted fishing methods and establishing of closed and open seasons are necessary for the protection and conservation of fish species. The most important consideration is the maintenance of stable ground water level for the protection and preservation of the fish fauna.

All landscape alternations must be avoided and the use of herbicides and insecticides must be prohibited in the surrounds of the fishing ground. Even if the former native fish species are missing from the chosen localities, artificial repopulation with indigenous species from other localities may be employed. A new integrated effort is now required for the protection and conservation of the fish fauna of India permanently, regardless of whether the species are small or large, palatable or unpalatable, provide good entertainment to the anglers and economically important or unimportant. Living indigenous fish fanua must be considered in the same way as any other cultural assets. If this is not given proper attention, it may well be that valuable genetic material will disappear forever.

Selected References

Barman, R. P. 1988. The fishes of the river Gumti, Tripura, North East India. Rec. %001. SIIrv. Illdia, Dec. Paper No. 119 : 1-86. Barman, R. P. 1989. On a small collection of fishes from Mizoram, India. J. Bombay lIat. Hist. Soc., 86 (3) : 463-466. Barman, R. P. 1991. A Taxonomic revision of the Indo-Burmese species of Danio Hamilton Buchanan (Pisces: Cyprinidae). Rec. zool. Surv. India, Dec. Paper No. 137 : i-vii + 1-91, text figs. 20. Barman, R. P. 1993. State Fauna Series 5, Fauna of Andhra Pradesh, Part 1 : Fishes, 89-334, text figs. 143, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, Govt. of India publication. Barman, R. P. 1994. Fish Fauna of Tripura, North-East India. J. Bombay nat, Hist. Soc., 91 (1) : 37-46. Day, F. 1875-78. The Fishes of India; being a natural history of the fishes known to inhabit the seas and freshwaters of India, Burma and Ceylon. Text and atlas in 4 parts. London, XX + 778 pp., 195 pIs. • Day, F. 1889. The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma. Fishes. 1, 548 pp; 2, 509 pp., London, Taylor & Francis. Jayaram, K. C. 1981. The Freshwater Fishes oj India. A handbook, Zoological Survey of India, 475 pp. Jhingran, V. G. 1983. Fish and Fislleries oj India. Hindustan Publishing Corporation, New Delhi, 666 pp. Menon, A. G. K. 1987. The Fallna oj India and adjacent countries. Pisces. Vol. IV. Teleostei¬Cobitoidea, Pt. 1, Homalopteridae. ZSI Calcutta. X + 259, pIs. I-XV + 6 text figs + 5 graphs + 9 maps. Menon, A. G. K. 1992. The FallnaojIndiaandadjacentcOlintries. Pisces. Vol. IV. Teleostei¬Cobitoidea, Part 2 : Cobitidae. ZSI, Calcutta. 113 pp., pIs. 10. Nelson, J. S. 1984. Fishes oj the world. 2nd ed. John Wiley & Sons, New York. 523 pp. Talwar, P. K. & Kacker, R. K. 1984. Commercial sea jishes oj India. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta. 997 pp., text figs. 373. Talwar, P. K. 1991. Pisces. Animal Resources oj India, Protozoa to Mammalia. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, 577-630.

Pisces: India

This is an extract from ANIMAL RESOURCES OF INDIA: Protozoa to Mammalia State of the Art. Zoological Survey of India, 1991. By Professor Mohammad Shamim Jairajpuri Director, Zoological Survey of India and his team of devoted scientists. The said book was an enlarged, updated version of The State of Art Report: Zoology Edited by Dr. T. N. Ananthakrishnan, Director, Zoological Survey of India in 1980.

Note: This article is likely to have several spelling mistakes that occurred during scanning. If these errors are reported as messages to the Facebook page, Indpaedia.com your help will be gratefully acknowledged.

Introduction

The fish fauna of India and adjacent countries exhibits enonnous diversity in their morphology, in the habitats they occupy, and in their biology. Fishes, like many other forms of life, are of immense value to mankind. Today they form an important element in the economy of India and many countries while giving incalculable recreational and psychological value to the naturalist, sports enthusiast and home aquarist. Many Government institutions are devoted to the study of their biology and propagation. They are used as general indicators or summators of pollution, partly to the direct benefit of mankind and partly to protect what people consider a valuable and necessary part of their heritage and life. It is desirable to maintain the diversity that the systematist studies.

Fish live in almost every conceivable aquatic habitat; they are found along the coasts of the Indian subcontinent, whether rocky, sandy. or muddy, and amongst coral reefs, in deep sluggish rivers or in fast torrential streams, in lakes, ponds and wells, in river estuaries, -coastal lagoons and backwaters; or total darkness in caves. The distribution of marine fishes is rather wide, and some genera are common to the Indo-Pacific and the Atlantic regions. It was estimated by Alcock (1899) that 57 per cent of the Indian marine genera .were common to the Indian seas and to the Atlantic and Mediterranean. The freshwater fish fauna of the Indian subcontinent has elements in it which is common to the Indo-Malayan and Indo-Chinese subregions (Jayaram, 1974). Barring the cichUd, Etroplus in southern India arid Sri Lanka, the African element is absent from most parts of peninsular India.

The Lampreys and hagfishes (Agnathi), lungfishes ad mud-sirens (Dipneusti) and the stergeons (Actinopterygii) are totally absent in India. Althougb fishery science in the modem sense is of recent origin in India, the ancient Hindus were not ignorant of the value of fisheries. References to the utility of fish as a source of food exist in Kautilaya's "Arthasastra" (circa 300 B.e) (Hora, 1948), while the second pillar edict of Ashoka forbade the use of fish on certain phases of the moon which Hora (1950) has i~terpreted as being based on principles of fisheries conservation,

Historical Resume

The study of fish systematics, ichthyology in the limited sense of the word, has had a long and interesting history; its makers have often been dynamic figures. Brief historien of Indian ahthyology may be found in Day (1878), Jordan (1895), Axelrod and Schultz (1905) and Whitehead and Talwar (1976).

Among books pliblished .on Indian fishes, Francis Day's (1875-1878) treatise The Fishes of India is of greatest importance. Hamilton-Buchanan .(1822) described numerous freshwater fishes from the Gangetic system, and a synthesis ofthis work and'atl-subsequent studies in the ichthyo fauna of the Ganga is given in Talwar (1991). Max Weber and De Beaufort started their series on the fishes of the Indo-Australian archipelago in India, the accounts of Indian fishes, viz. "Commercial sea Fishes of India" by Talwar &Kacker (1984) and the most recent book entitled "Inland Fishes of India and adjacent countries" by Talwar &Jhingran (1991) not only constitute new work, but also serve as a vade-mecum to the fishery scientist. An outstanding work "Fishes of the Laccadive Archipelago" by Jones &Kumaran (1980) was a noteworthy advance in our knowledge of fish faunal resources of the Laccadive sea. The manual brought out by FAO entitled FAO Species Identification sheets for Fishery Purposes-Western Indian Ocean " (edited by Fischer &Bianchi, 1984), is simply a wonderful resource for anyone dealing with sea fishes. As large and impressive this manual is, it should not be expected to serve as a systematic revision of any family even though there are nomenclatural or systenlatic changes incorporated in the text. The five documents, which were distributed by the Government of India, deserve special mention. These are the volumes on fishes under the Fauna ofIndia series; three volumes by K.S. Misra, and one volume each by Menon and Raj Tilak. Another noteworthy publication is a Handbook on freshwater fishes of the Indian region by Jayaram (1981).

Estimation of Taxa

Fishes constitute almost half the total number of vertebrates. Nelson (1984) estimated 21,723 living species of fish in the world compared with 21,450 extant tetrapods (a total of about 43,173 recognized vertebrate species have been described). Cohen (1970) had earlier estimated about 20,000 species of fishes of which approximately 19,400 are teleosts, nearly 59% marine and 41% freshwater. Day (1889) listed 1418 fish species under 342 genera, from the faunal limits of India. Subsequently, about 275 species were added which were dredged by the R.I.M.S.lnvestigator from the deep waters (Alcock, 1899; Mc Ardle, 1901; Eschmeyer et al., 1973; Fricke, 1983). Subsequent additions of the, Indian total reflects the dominance of such workers as Hora, Koumans, Trewavas, Misra, Jones, Whitehead, Menon, Silas, Jayaram, Tilak, Yazdani, Rama Rao, Husain, Talwar, etc -all Ichthyologists primarily from the Zoological Survey of India. Tiwari (1985) estimated the number as about 1650 fish species from the faunal limits of India. The present estimate is, however, 2546 species belonging to 969 genera and 254 families. The estimate of the number of fish species in the 39 orders, is tabulated (Table 1).

Systematic fish'collections in India have been adequately supported at.the national level. These suitably preserved specimens of animals stored in the Zoological Survey of India and several universities constitute an invaluable, and for many species and many regions, an irreplaceable, resource that requires continuing care. The use of and need for the resource is broad and a varied clientele as systematists, evolutionists, zoogeographers, anatomists, applied and academic ecologists, teachers, students, hobbyists and the general public, public health officials and numerous other Government agencies at all levels, draw upon the bank of information included in and associated with the collections. The science of ichthyology is still much concerned with old collections of fishes and the type-specimens that they contain. The Zoological Survey of India presently houses about 675 fish types and representatives of about 80% of the ichthyofauna known from the Indian region.

Ichtbyofaunal Studies : An Analysis

It is an axion of ecology that tropical regions exhibit greater species diversity than do temperate ones (Smith, 1974). South America has the greatest diversity of freshwater fish species (Gery, 1969). Africa and Asia follow and they, too, have outstandingly diverse faunas (Darlington, 1975). The same reasoning can be applied to marine tropical areas. The arrangement of the families is phylogenetic following Nelson (1984), but with a few deviations based on recent works.

Class CHONDRICHTHYES

Order CHIMAERIFORMES

Family CHIMAERIDAE

Two genera and about 20 species; only Chimaera monostrosa Linnaeus recorded in Indian waters (Misra, 1969).

Family RHINOCHIMAERIDAE

Three genera with ten species; all three genera reported from Indian Seas, viz. Harriotta (one species), Rhinochimaera (one species) and Neoharriotta (one species) (Misra, 1969; Silas et al., 1969).

HEXANCHIFORMES

Family HEXANCmDAE

Cow sharks have a worldwide distribution in boreal and from cold temperate to tropical seas. Three genera with four species (Compagno, 1984); one species only from the Indian region. Compagno &. Talwar (1985) reported a member of this family, viz. Heptranchias pe'rlo (Ronnaterre) for the first time from Indian waters, and further showed that the report (Misra, 1969) of Notorynchus cepedianus (peron) from Indian waters stand corrected.

Ordez SQUALIFORMES

Family ECHINORHINIDAE One genus, Echinorhinus, with two species; only E. brucus (Bonnaterre) reported in India (Silas &. Sevaraj, 1972) off the Kerala coast.

Family SQUALIDAE

Dogfish sharks occurring in warm-temperate and tropical areas are mostly confined to deeper water (50 m or more). Seventeen genera with 67 species (Compagno, 1984); four genera with four species in the Indian region. Centroscymnus crepidater (Bocage & Capello) is listed from Indian waters on the basis that Centrophorus rossi Alcock, 1898, is a tentative synonym. Silas &Prasad (1969) reported Squalus fernandinus Molina from. the Arabian Sea, a misidentification of S. mitsukUTii Jordan &Snyder. Silas et al. (1969), followed by Nair & Mohan (1971, 1972), recorded Centrophorus armatus (Gilchrist) from the Indian region which appears to be identical with C. lqalD (Ratinesque). Centroscyllium ornatum (Alcock) is restricted to the Bay of Bengal.

ORECTOLOBWORMES

Family RHINIODONTIDAE Compagno (1984) reviewed the family comprising a monotypic genus. Rhiniodon typus Smith is the world's largest fish with lengths upto 15.2 m. Apparently of relatively limited interest to fisheries. Small harpoon fisheries exist in India and Pakistan.

Family HEMISCYLLIDAE Two genera with eleven species (Compagno, 1984); one genus, Chiloscyllium, with four species in Indian waters, confined to inshore waters. These fishes are regularly taken in small scale artisanal fisheries by bottom ttawlers.

Family STEGOSTOMATIDAE

This family comprises a single monotypic genus in the Indian region. The zebra shark, Stegostoma fasciatum (Hermann) is regularly taken in inshore fisheries in India. The systematics of this species has been discussed by Compagno (1984).

Family GINGL YMOSTOMA TIDAE

Two genera with three species (Compagno, 1984): the monotypic genus Nebrius only in the Indian region. N. ferrugineus (Lesson) is a sluggish, nocturnal shallow-water bottom shark and is caught with gill-nets and line gear.

LAMNIFORMES

The mackerel sharks comprise of seven families; four in the Indian region.

Family ODONTASPIDIDAE Two genera with four species; one genus, Eugomphodus, with two species in Indian waters (Compagno, 1984). While E. tricuspidatus (Day) is fished in India and Pakistan, the occurrence of

E. taurus (Rafinesque) in India needs confmnation though its report from Pakistan is definite.

Family PSEUDOCARCHARIIDAE the single living species, viz. Pseudocarcharias kamoharai (Matsubara, 1936) is doubtfully listed from the Bay of Bengal by -Compagno (1984).

Family ALOPIIDAE A single genus with three species recognised; two species in the Indian region. Alopias pelagicus Nakamura occurs in the Arabian Sea off India and Pakistan, andA. vulpinus (Bonnaterre) in Pakistan, India and Sri Lanka (Compagno, 1984). Both these are deepwater sharks.

Family LAMNIDAE Three genera with five species (Compagno, 1984); only Isurus oxyrinchus Rafinesque has been reported in Indian waters. This genus has been revised by Garrick (1967).

Ordez CARCHARHlNIFOR:MES

Compagno (1988) published a most comprehensive and informative work entitled 'Sharks -of the order Carcharhiniformes, on the anatomy and systematics of chondrichthyan fishes' This is the largest group of living sharks, with inshore, oceanic an'd deep"'Water benthic species in all temperate to tropical seas. Eight families; six in the Indian region.

Family SCYLIORHINIDAE

Mostly small harmless sharks not exceeding a length of 100 cm; predominantly bottom or near bottom dwelling fishes. The most recent major revision is by Springer (1979); Compagno (1984) reviewed these fishes and recognised 15 genera and 89 species of which four genera with six species inhabit the Indian region. The genus Apristurus is represented in the Indian region by A. investigatoris (Alcock), known only from its type (holotype only) from the Andaman Sea. Specimens of Atelomycterus marmoratus (Bennett) from India are badly needed for study. The genus Cephaloscyllium is represented by C. silas; (Talwar, 1974); Compagno &Talwar (1984) showed that Rama Rao's (1975) report of Scyliorhinus natalensis (Regan) was a misidentification being identical with Cephaloscyllium silasi. Compagno (1984) discussed the identity of the poorly known shark, Halaelurus alcocld German, 1913.

Family PROSCYLLIDAE

Four genera with six s~cies; one genus with a single species in the Indian region. Eridacnis radcliffe; Smith known from the Gulf of Mannar. Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Sea, in the Indian region. Nair &Mohan (1973) relegated Proscyllium alcocld Misra. 1950, described from the Andamans, to the synonymy of Eridacnis radcliffei Smith, 1913.

Family TRIAKIDEA

Nine genera with 34 species; two genera with two species in the Indian region. The genus Jago was reviewed by Compagno (1984) who in addition to I. omanensis (Nonnan), noted a low-finned lago from southern India that is sympatric with I. omanensis and may represent a new species. The other genus, Mustelus was also reviewed by Compagno (1984) who noted the occurrence of M. mosis Hemprich &Ehrenberg in India.

Family HEMIGALEIDAE Four genera with five species; three genera with three species in the Indian Seas and these have been reviewed by Compagno (1984). The Hemigaleidae is a small family of common coastal tropical sharks of continental and insular shelf waters down to 100 m but usually in coastal waters. Members of this family are common catches in artisanal and small commercial inshore and near offshore fisheries where they occur. Hemipristis pingali Setna & Sarangdhar, 1946, described from Bombay, has 'been relegated to the synonymy of H. elongatus (Klunzinger, 1871) by Compagno (1984).

Family CARCHARHINIDAE

This is one of the largest and most important families of sharks, with many common and wide¬rangiQg species found in all warm and temperate seas. Twelve genera with 46 species; ten genera with 26 species in the Indian region. Garrick (1982) revised the genus Carcharhinus. The genus Glyphis was revised by Compagno (1984) who discussed the specific identity of the Ganges shark,

G. gangeticus (Muller & Henle), the famous, notorious and elusive shark of Indian waters. The genus Loxodon was revised by Springer (1964) who relegated Scoliodon ceylonensis Setna & Sarangdhar, 1964, to the synonymy of Loxodon macrorhinus Muller &Henle, 1839. The classification and species of Negaprion are discussed in detail by Compagno (1979). The genera Rhizoprionodon and Scoliodon were revised by Springer (1964).

Family SPHYRNIDAE The hammerheads are a small but common family of wide-ranging warm-temperate and tropical sharks. Two genera with nine species~ both genera with four species in the Indian region. This family has been recently reviewed by Compagno (1984). Hammerhead sh~ks are important for fisheries and are used as food and also for the preparation of various subproducts, especially Vitamin A from the liver.

Ordez PRISTIFORMES This order comprises a single family of circumtropical batoids, some entering freshwater.

Family PRISTIDAE Rays of very large and of shark-like appearance, adults of some species attain over 6 m. Two genera and 6 or 7 species; the monotypic genus Anoxypristis and three species of Pristis occur in the Indian region. Some of these species are fairly abundant in the Indian region; the flesh is much esteemed and the liver yields considerable oil.

Order TORPEDINIFORMES

Family TORPEDINIDAE Electric rays are smaIl to moderately large batoid fishes. One genus, Torpedo, with about fourteen species; four species in the Indian region, reviewed by T~war (1981). Talwar (op. cit.) reported T. fairchildi Hutton, T. macneilli (Whitley) and T. fuscomaculata Peters for the fIrSt time from Indian waters.

Family NARKIDAE Mostly deep-water rays encountered in trawl catches, some capable of delivering powerful shocks. Five genera with about ten species; three genera in Indian waters, viz. monotypic Bengalichthys, Narke (one species) and Heteronarce (reviewed by Talwar, 1981; three species). Garrick (1951) considered Bengalichthys a subgenus of Nar~ Kaup. Talwar (1981) discovered Heteronarce prabhui off the Kerala coast and, further, extended the range of disttibution of H. mollis (Lloyd) to India.

Family NARCINIDAE

Four genera with about 15 species; two genera in Indian waters, viz. Benthobatis (one species and Narcine (three species) (Misra, 1969).

Order RAJIFORMES

Family RAJIDAE Nine genera with more than 200 species; three genera, viz. Breviraja (one species). Cruriraja (one'species) and Raja (three species) in Indian Seas. The Indian Ocean species were revised by Stehmann (1976).

Family RHINOBATIDAE

The guitarfishes are harmless batoids. Eight or nine genera, with about 52 species; four genera with ten species in the Indian region. Nair &Mohan (1973) discovered Rhinobatos variegatus from the deep waters of the Gulf of Mannar. The fishes of the genus Rhinobatos have been reviewed by Talwar (1984).

Order MYLIOBATIFORMES

Family MYLIOBATIDAE

Moderate-sized to very large batoid fishes. Worldwide in tropical and subtropical waters, inshore and well offshore. Five genera with 27 species; three genera in the Indian region, with five species. Seveml of these contribute to fISheries and have been reviewed by Talwar (1984).

Family MOBULIDAE

The mantas are moderate-sized to gigantic batoid fishes, maximum width at least 6.7 m. Worldwide in tropical and sub-tropical waters, close inshore and well out to sea. Two genera with ten species; two genera with three species in Indian waters (Talwar, 1984) .. Manta birostris (Donndorff) is one of the largest fishes and grows to a width of more than 7 m. and in weight in excess of 1400 kg.

Family DASYATIDAE

Small to large batoid fishes, found in all tropical and subtropical oceans. Many species are dangerous, because of their large size, and large, serrated, venomous stings. Nine or ten genera and about 89 species (Smith &Heemstra, 1986); 'seven genera with 26 species in Indian waters. The monotypic genus Hypolophus was revised by Compagno &Roberts (1982). Nair &Soundarajan (1973) reported the occurrence of the deep-water stingray, Urotrygon daviesi Wallace for the fllSt time from Indian Seas.

Class OSTEICHTHYES

Order OSTEOGLOSSIFORMES

The fishes of this order are predominantly tropical freshwater fishes of extraordinary diverse body form and size. Six families of which only one occurs in the Indian region.

Family NOTOJ:>TERIDAE Three genera in tropical Africa and south-east Asia, one in the Indian region. The genus• Notopterus with four species, inhabits the freshwaters of India and ,southeast Asia; two species in the Indian region. Notopterus osmani Rahimullah &Das, 1936, described from the Deccan was considered (Misra, 1976) a junior synonym of N. notopterus (pallas). This species thrives well in lentic waters and is common in tanks throughout the greater parts of India. Swamps in India yield considerable quantities of N. chitala (Hamilton-Buchanan), but the catches are fast declining. The flesh of both these species is of good flavour, but full of bones.

Order ELOPIFORMES

Three families are recognised, all known from the Indian region. although primarily marine,these fishes are known from brackish and fresh waters. Forey (1973) provides a detailed account of the fossil and extant forms, and Greenwood (1977) discusses their anatomy and classification.

Family ELOPIDAE

One genus, Elops, with six species was recognised by Whitehead (1962); only E. machnata (Forsskal) is known from the Indian region. This fish is occasionally caught along the east coast of India, especially at Madras. The flesh is rather insipid and full of bones. The ladyfish has for centuries been important in pond culture in Hawaii where the fry is trapped on the incoming tide, but it is only of incidental importance in south-east Asia. Nybelin (1971) has studied the caudal skeleton in Elops.

Family ?v1EGALOPIDAE

This family comprises a single genus, Megalops, with two species, viz. M. cyprinoids (Broussonet) of the Indo-west Pacific and M. cyprinoides (Broussonet) of the Indo-west Pacific and

M. atlanticus (L.) of the western Atlantic. The Indo-Pacific tarpon is a fast growing carnivore, but the flesh is poor and bony; attains a maximum length of a metre. This fish is fairly common in the fresh waters and estuaries along the coast of India, and contributes a minor fishery in the coastal waters of Andhra Pradesh and Kerala. In the Godavari and Krishna rivers in peninsular India, it migrates upto 100 km upstream, and in the Cauvery river upto the Mettur Dam, a distance of 400 kIn from the sea.

Family ALBULIDAE

The bonefishes are elongate, fusiform fishes resembling the Clupeidae, but possessing a lateral line and lacking scutes along the belly. The infraorbital lateral lil1e canal extends onto the premaxilla, which is rare among living teleosteans (Nelson, 1984). Two genera are recognised in this family of which one (Albula) occurs in the Indian region. Albula vulpes (Linnaeus) is' taken commercially in Indian coastal waters. The flesh is palatable, but with numerous fine bones. Until recently A. vulpes was considered to be a single wide-ranging tropical species; Shaklee and Tamaru (1981) using protein analysis, noted the existence of two additional species which appear to be genetically more distinct than many genera of fishes.

Order NOTACANTHIFORMES

Members of this deep-sea order have been taken between 125 and 4900 m, but most seem to occur in depths of 450-2500 m.

Family HALOSAURIDAE

Halosaurs are benthopelagic inhabitants of the continental slope, rise and abyssal plain beneath warm seas. Three genera with 16 species (Smith &Heemstra, 1986); two genera occur in Indian waters, viz. Aldrovandia (one species) and Halosaurus (four species) (Alcock, 1899; Sulak, 1977). Mc Dowell (1973) synonymised Halosaurus nigerrimus Alcock, 1898, from the Arabian Sea, with Aldrovandia phalacra (Vaillant, 1888).

Family NOTACANTHIDAE

Spiny eels hover just above the bottom at depths of 125-3500 m. Two genera with nine species (Nelson, 1984); only Notacanthus indicus Lloyd, 1909, recorded in the Indian region.

Order ANGUILLIFORlvfES

With the exception of one family of freshwater eels, all members of this order are marine in habitat. This large and diverse group of fishes is divided into 16 families (Smith &, Heemstra, 1986) of which eleven occur in the Indian region. The extended pelagic life as a leptocephalus favours wide dispersal of species and many of our eels are known throughout the Indo-Pacific. For this reason, continuing additions to our eel fauna are to be expected as their special habitat is explored and collected mOTe fully by scientists, especially offshore in deep water.

Family ANGUILLIDAE One genus, Anguilla, with 19 species and subspecies worldwide; one genus with two species in the Indian region. Comprehensive taxonomic review by Ege (1939) and Tesch (1979) has summarised the biology, fishery and culture of freshwater eels. Anguilla bengalensis benga/ensis (Gray) is of considerable fishery value in the inland waters of the east coast of India and tbe Andaman Islands. Elver resources of this species are plentiful in certain estuarine locations in India for both A. bengalensis and A. hieolor Mc Clelland, and there is a good export market for both live elvers and eels.

Family MORINGUIDAE

Tropical seas only; of no commercial significance. Two genera (Smith &Castle, 1972); one in the Indian region. The genus• Moringua with about ten species, have been reviewed by Castle (1968); three species have been listed from the estuarine and freshwaters of the Indian region. Aphthalmichthys gangeticus Fowler, 1912. is probably identical-with Moringua arundinacea (Mc Clelland) (Talwar &Jhingran. 1991). Menon (1974). followed by Sen (1975), erromeously considered Moringua hodgarti Chaudhuri, 1913, a synbrancbid

Family MURAENIDAE

In all oceans, some entering estuaries. About 14 genera and 200 species worldwide; eight genera and 35 species in the In~an region, several of which need further study and comparison with extralimital specimens. The genus Anarchias represented by two species, and the genus Enehe/ynassa Kaup represented by its type-species, E. eanina (Quoy &Gaimard), have been reported only from the Minicoy Islands in the Indian region (Jones &Kumaran. 1980). Echidna niGra (Day) has not been listed since its original discovery from the Andaman Sea.

Family NEMICHTHYIDAE

Snipe eels are mesopelagic fishes. captured from the surface down to 2000 m or more; no commercial significance. Three genera and eight species worldwide; two genera and two species in the Indian region. Comprehensively reviewed py Nielsen and Smith (1978).

Family SYNAPHOBRANCHIDAE

All oceans; of no commercial significance. Mostly on bottom in 100-2000 m. Twelve genera, 18 species; two genera and three species in the Indian region. Reviewed by Robins &Robins (1976).

Family OPHICHTHIDAE

Typically small (less than 30 cm), worm-like sand-and mud-burrowing forms; no commercial significance. Mc Cosker (1977). followed by Me Cosker and Castle (1986), recognise two subfamilies with a total of 59 genera and about 220 species worldwide; thirteen genera with 24 species in the Indian region (Talwar, 1984). Pisodonophis assemensis Sen, 1985, was relegated to the synonymy of P. boro (Hamilton-Buchanan) by Talwar &Jhingran (1991).

Family NEITASTOMATIDAE

This family of tropical and warm temperate waters is poorly known; eventually, it may be shown to be best combined with Congridae (Smith, Bohlke &Castle, 1981). All oceans, but of no commercial significance. Five genera worldwide with about 25 species; two genera and two species in the Indian region. Adults on or near the bottom in 500-2000m; larvae in open ocean.

Family COLOCONGRIDAE

One genus, Coloconger, ~ith four species occurring in the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans; only pne, Coloconger raniceps Alcock from the Andaman Sea is known from the Indian region.

Family MURAENESOCIDAE All oceans, abundant enough in India and south-east Asia to be commercially significant. Seven genera worldwide, with about 14 species; five genera with seven species in Indian region. The genera Congresox and Muraenesox have been revised by Castle &Williamson (1975). Talwar (1979) rediscovered the rare deep-water eel, Sauramuraenesox vort;lX Alcock, 1889, from off the Madras coast, and discussed its specific identity. The systematics of the monotypic genus Gavialiceps has been discussed by Nonnan (1939) and Castle (1977).

Family CONGRIDAE

Adults benthic from shore to deep water; larvae wide-spread and abundant in open ocean. All oceans, but no where abundant enough to be commercially significant. About 34 genera worldwide, with 95 species; thirteen genera and 18 species from Indian waters. The discovery of Heteroconger hassi nicobarensis, H. obscura and Gorgasia maculatus from the Nicobar Islands by Klausewitz &Eibl-Eibesfeldt (1959) were noteworthy finds. Talwar &Mukherjee (1977) discovered Ariosoma gnanadossi from off the Madras coast

Family SERRIVOMERIDAE

These bathypelagic fishes are uniformly black, over-laid with silver. Three genera with about ten species worldwide; Serrivomer microps (Alcock) from the Anclaman Sea, is only known from the Indian region.

Order CLUPEIFORMES

Primitive teleosts with a distinctive type of connection between the swimbladder and the ears which is unique among fishes (Greenwood et al., 1966). Five families are currently recognised (Whitehead, 1985); four in the Indian region, viz. Clupeidae, Pristigasteridae, Chirocentridae and Engraulididae. These four families are united in the suborder Clupeoidei and are popularly referred to as clupeoids. Pelagic, mainly inshore fishes, often forming large and densely packed shoals which are heavily preyed upon by fishes, birds and man. The clupeoid fishes (Le. including the anchovies) are the most important single group exploited by world fisheries and in some areas they account for a third or even a half of the total catch.

Family CLUPEIDAE Whitehead (1985) recognised five subfamilies and reviewed them; some 180 clupeid fishes of the world are described and placed in 56 genera. Of these, 33 species belonging to 14 genera and five subfamilies, have been reported from Indian waters.

Subfamily Alosinae

Gudusia (revised by Whitehead, 1965; two species); and Hilsa (with two subgenera, revised by Whitehead, 1965; three species). Gudusia godanahiai Srivastava, 1968, described from Uttar Pradesh, has been relegated to the synonymy of G. chapra (Hamilton-Buchanan) by Talwar &Whitehead (1971).

Animal Resources ofIndia

Subfamily Clupeinae Escualosa (one species), Herklotsichthys (revised by Wongratana, 1980; one species); Amblygaster (three species); and Sardinella (reviewed by Whitehead, 1985; eight species). Several species of Sardinella make very significant contribution to artisanal and fully mechanised fISheries in the Indian• region. Sardinella (Amblygaster)jonesi Lazarus, 1983, described from Keml:a, appears to be identical with Amblygaster sirm (Whitehead et al' J 1988). Menon &, Talwar (1974) recorded

A. leiogaster (Valenciennes) from India for the fust time.

Subfamily Dussumieriinae

Dussumieria (reviewed by Whitehead, 1985; two s~ies)and Spratelloides (two species).

Subfamily Pellonulinae Corica (one species), monotypic Dayella, and mono typic Ehirava. Talwar &, Jhingran (1991) treated Corica biharensis Kamal &Ahsan, 1979, as a junior synonym of Corica soborna Hamilton-Buchanan.

Subfamily Dorosomalinae Anodontostoma (reviewed by Whitehead, 1985; three species); Gonialosa (three species, revised by Wongratana, 1983) and Nematalosa (revised by Nelson &Rotbam, 1973; two species). The Dorosomatinae are either marine, pelagic and apparently anadromous, or estuarine or purely fluviatile.

Family PRISTIGASTERIDAE These fishes are marine coastal, but some species enter estuaries while a few are restricted• to freshwater. Until recently, the pristigasterines were considered a subfamily of the Clupeidae. Nelson (1967) found unique features in their gill arches; he raised them to the rank of super-faritily~ Whitehead (1985) recognised the family and reviewed them; nine genera (three worldwide, five New World, and one Indo-Pacific) and 33 species (16 New World, one West Africa and 16 Indo-Pacific). Of these, four genera and 13 species have been recorded from Indian waters, viz. Illsha (reviewed by Whitehead, 1985; nine species), Opisthopterus (one species), Pellona (reviewed by Wongratana. 1983; two species) and the monotypic genus Raconda. Though no special fisheries exist for particular species, pristigasterids are common in Indian •fish markets and make a useful contribution to clupeoid catches.

Family CHIROCENTRIDAE

Chirocentrids are marine coastal fIShes widely disblDuted in the warmer parts of the Indo-Pacific region. Wolf-herrings are voracious carnivores, unlike all other clupeoids. One genus with tWD species recognised, both in the Indian region. Bardack (1965) gives a detailed description of the genus Chirocentrus Cuvier; Whitehead (1985) has recently reviewed them. The wolf-herrings •contribute to an important fishery along the coast of India but 76% of the total catch comes from the east coast; Tamil Nadu occupies the foremost place in the fishery. Among the largest of the clupeoids, they reach 100 cm standard length. Good eating but bony; large specimens are dangerous.

Family ENGRAULIDIDAB

Anchovies are typically marine coastal and schooling fishes. occurring in all seas, but some species enter brackish water to feed or spawn. The family name .Engraulidae has been used in almost all previous literature but is an incorrect derivation from Engraulis (Whitehead. Nelson &Wongratana. 1988); the correct (but less euphonic) derivation is Engraulididae (as explained by Steykal, 1980). Some 139 anchovy species are presently recognised. placed in 16 genera and these have been recently reviewed by Whitehead. Nelson &. Wongratana (1988); five genera with 35

Pisces 587

species are reported from Indian waters, viz. Coilia (five species), Encrasicholina (three species), Stolephorus (seven species), Selipinna (five species) and Thryssa (15 species). Whitehead (1973) considered Coilia korua Dult &Rao, 1972, conspecific with C. reynaldi. Valenciennes; and Selipinna godavari Babu Rao, 1962, identical with S. lenuifilis Valenciennes. The anchovies are small translucent silvery fishes, occurring often in immense shoals in coastal waters. Valuable marine fish as a source of food and fish meal in India; also suitable for salting and sundrying' as well as canning. The average annual catch of anchovies in India is about 48,000 tonnes of which 90% is from the west coast of India.

Ordez GONORHYNCHIFORMES

This order' comprises a small group of seven genera, totally some 30 species of diverse morphology and habitat (Howes, 1985). Several features suggest some affinity between this order and the clupeiformes (Nelson, 1984). Four families, one in the Indian region.

Family CHANIDAE

This family comprises a monotypic genus. Chanos gardineri Regan, 1903, described from the Maldives, has been shown by Palmer (1962) to be conspecific with Chanos chanos (Forsskal). The milkflSh is of considerable importance as a foodfish in south-east Asia. Although an inhabitant of the sea in its adult stages, its fry, fmgerlings and early juveniles can be obtained mostly from the brackish-water regions. The adults attain a length of 1.8 m and its place in the estuarine fishery is important being one of the most useful species for fish culture. In India this species is very popular among fish culturists due to its immense adaptive powers and fast-growing qualities.

Order CYPRINIFORMES

This group consists solely of freshwater fish and is widespread in tropical and temperate waters of Europe, Africa, Asia and North America. This is the largest order of the fresh-water fishes; six families, 256 genera and 2422 species (Nelson, 1984). Several members of this o~der are important foodfishes and also popular aquarium fIShes, especially the minnows and loaches. Seven families; five in the Indian region.

Family CYPRINIDAE

A very large and most dominant group of primary freshwater fishes in most areas within its distribution and is of considerable economic significance in the Indian region. This is the largest family of fishes known, comprising about 194 genera and 2074 species (Nelson, 1984). Recent studies on the osteology of this family include Howes (1978, 1980, 1981, 1982, 1983 and 1984). This very speciose family has been divided into various subfamilies and the classification followed here is after Banarescu (1968, 1972) and Gosline (1978). Talwar &Jhingran (1991) have given a most comprehensive synthesis of the knowledge of the cyprinoids of India and adjacent countries, and have also presented keys to their specific identity coupled with fIShery information.

Subfamily Cyprininae

The subfamily contains the great bulk of the cyprinoid fishes of the Indian region. Several hundred species of barbs are known from Europe, Africa and Asia, but most of the little creatures we know as good aquarium fishes come from India and Malay regions. Numerous genera recognised, but only 24 genera with 145 species in the Indian region (Talw8r &Jhingran, 1991); the fIShes of the genera Carassius, Ctenopharyngodon, Cyprinus and Tinea do not occur naturally in India but were introduced at various times for cultural purposes. Noteworthy studies on this group of fishes include Karaman (1969) on Capoeta; Natarajaon el ale (1978) on Catla; Rainboth (1985, 1986a, 1986b) on Neolissoehilus, Chagunius and Gonoproktopterus, respectively; Banarescu (1983) on Cirrhinus; Howes (1981) on Clenopharyngodon; Kirpichnikov (1967) on Cyprinus; Smith (1945) on Cyelocheiliehthys; Howes (1982) on Cyprinion (= Semiplotus); Taki & Kawamoto (1977) and Kottelat (1978) on Hampala; Kottelat (1987) on Labiobarbus; Smith (1945) on Mystacoleucus; Hora (1937) and Tilak &Sati (1984) on Oreichthys; Silas (1952) on Osteobrama; Hora (1942) on Osteochilus; Yazdani &Rao (1975) and Taki et ale (1978) on Puntius; Silas (1952) on Rohtee; and Hora.(1942) on Schismatorhynchos.

In India, Catla catla (Hamilton-Buchanan) was originally confined to the plains of north of Kristna, but during the last three decades it has been introduced to practically ,all river systems and many of the tanks and reservoirs where it now supportS a very important fIShery. Natarajan et ale (1978) have observed sttong indications of existence of•three infra-specific populations of C. catla from the Riband reservoir (Uttar Pradesh), each of which showing specific 'roles' corresponding to 'niches' in the ecosystem; these ecological populations are also distinguished by distinct morpho-biological features. Dutt &Murthy (1976) have shown that Cirrhinus chaudhryi Srivastava, 1968, described from Gorakhpur (U.P.) is identical with Cirrhinus mrigala (Hamilton-Buchanan). Talwar &Jhingran (1991) have relegated Cirrhinus horai Lakshmanan, 1966, described from the Godavari river, to the synonymy of Cirrhinus macrops Steindachner.

The rare Burmese kingftsh, Cyprinion modestum (Day) has been reported (as Semipiotus modestus) from India by Barman (1988). Talwar &Jhingran (1991) relegated Puntius sarana sarona (Hamilton-Buchanan, 1822) as they considered the former as the juveniles of the latter species. Further, they treated Puntius jayarami Singh &Singh, 1988, to be identical with Puntius sarana orphoides (Valenciennes, 1842); and both Puntius muzaffarpurensis Srivastava. Varma &Sharma, 1976, and Puntius coorgensis Jayaram, 1982, to be conspecific with Puntius viUatus Day, 1865. The fishes of the genus Tor constitute the most important (along with Neolissochilus) of game fishes in India and these have been partly dealt with by Tilak &Shanna (1982).

Subfamily Cultrinae

The members of this subfamily are distributed j.n south-east Asia and China, and reappraissal and taxonomic relationships of the various taxa is given in Howes (1979) who pointed out ~at of all the cyprinid subfamilial assemblages recognised at present there is probably none so ill-dermed as Cultrinae. The members of this subfamily are small fishes with lots of intermuscular bones and hence not preferred as food fishes. Twenty-one genera presently recognised; four genera with 19 species in the Indian region (Tal war &Jhingran, 1991).

Banarescu (1969) reviewed the genus Chela, and Howes (1979) has given an osteological account and relationships of the genus. Tilak &Jain (1987) have shown that Danio menoni Barman, 1985, is a junior synonym of Chela laubuca (Hamilton-Buchanan, 1822). Banarescu (1968) revised the 'genus Salmostoma, but Howes (1979) was of the opinion that this interesting genus must be critically revised on an osteological basis before any assumptions can be made concerning intrageneric relationships. Reddiah (1980) described a new species of SalmOSIOma., viz.

S. kardahiensis from Jabalpur (M.P.).

Subfamily Leuciscinae

The consensus of ichthyological opinion is that the genus Hypophthalmichthys belongs to the Leuciscinae, but Howes (1981) thesis was that it represents a distinct monophyletic lineage representative of a basic division within the Cyprinidae. The genus has been reviewed by Howes (1981) who recognised three species; two species, viz. II. molilrix (Valenciennes) and H. nobilis (Richardson) have been introduced in Indian inland waters for cultural purposes.

Subfamily Rasborinae

This subfamily is rather numerously represented by both genera and species in the freshwaters . of India and adjacent countries, and individuals of several species may be abundant. In most of the genera the fish are too small and bony to have a direct economic value to man. They are, however, sold as aquarium fIShes being vivdly coloured. Twelve genera with 57 species have been recognised in the Indian region (Talwar &Jhingran, 1991).

Pisces 589

Babu &Nair (1978) discovered Amhlypharyngodon chakaiensis from Kerala. Talwar &Jhingran (1991) relegated A. gadigarhi Malhotra &Singh Dutta. 1975. described from Jammu, to the synonym of A. mola (Hamilton-Buchanan, 1822). The relationships of the genus Aspidoparia has been discussed by Howes (1979) based on osteological characters. Although several authors recently paid attention to the systematic position of the genus Barilius (last and best treatment is of Howes, 1980), their systematics at the species level is still poorly understood. Several species ofBarilius described in recent years, viz. B. jayarami Barman, 1985; B. howesi Barman, 1986; B. nelsoni Barman, 1989; and Barilius menoni Sen 1976: B. corbetti Tilak and Husain, 1980; and Barilius jalkapoorei Shrestha, 1982, from the Indian region, have all been shown (Talwar &Jhingran, 1991) to be conspecific with pertinent well-defined species.

Howes (1983) resmrected the genus Bengala Gray, 1833, for the reception of Cyprinus elanga Hamilton-Buchanan, 1822. A good osteological account of this species is given in Howes (1980). The fishes of the genus Brachydanio have been reviewed by Myers (1924); B./ranke; Meinken, 1963, erroneously stated as from India by Julian (1974), is, however, from an unknown locality (Frank &Franke, 1963). Danio (Brachydanio) horai Barman, 1983, described from the Namdapha river, is a synonym of Brachydanio acuticephala (Hora, 1921) (Tilak &Jain, 1988); Danio analipunctatus Boulenger, 1911, described from Burma, is conspecific with Brachydanio nigro/asciatUs (Day, 1869) (Myers, 1953); and Danio (Brachydanio) jayarami Barman, 1984, described from Burma, is identical with Brachydanio shanensis (Hora, 1928) (Talwar& Jhingmn, 1991). Hora &Mukerji (1934) presented a synopsis of the the Oriental genus Danio.

These fishes are of no practical value but their chief value lies in the fact that they fonn food for the predatory fishes. Several of them are very beautifully coloured and hence are important as aquarium fishes, both inland and overseas. Danio browni Regan, 1907, from Bunna, and Danio•deyi Sen &Dey, 1985, from Meghalaya, are both conspecific with Danio aequipinnatus (Me Clelland, 1839) (Tal war & Jhingran, 1991); Danio meghalayensis Sen &Dey 1985, from the the Khasi hills, is identical with Danio dangila (Hamilton-Buchanan, 1822); Danio manipurensis Barman, 1987, from Manipur, is a junior synonym of Danio naganensis Chaudhuri, 1912; and Danio assamensis Barman, 1985, described from Assam ,a junior synonym of Danio regina Fowler, 1934 (Talwar &Jhingran, 1991). Hora &Mukerji (1934) revised the genus Esomus. These fishes are of larvicidal value and also used as aquarium pets. Esomus manipurensis described recently from Manipur by Tilak &Jain (1990) is conspecific \vith E. danricus (Hamilton-Buchanan, 1822). A good osteological treatment of the genus Parlucioosoma is given by Howes (1980) Howes (1980) resurrected the genus Raiamas from the synonymy of Barilius, and also reviewed it. Barilius corbetti Tilak &Husain, 1980, described from the corbett National Park (U.P.), is a juvenile of Raiameas bola (Hamilton¬Buchanan); and Bariliuus jalkapoorei Shrestha, 1982, from Nepal, is identical with Raimas gl/Jtatus (Day, 1869) (Talwar & Jhingran, 1991).

Subfamily Schizothoracinae

This is a specialised group of fishes, dominant of the torrential mountain streams of the Himalaya and Central Asia. In India, they are distributed along the Himalayas, an exception is the singular schizothoracine genus of the Periyar river and lake in peninsula India. Further, the occurence of a schizothoracine fish in a subterranean cave near Udaipur in Rajasthen (Tehsin, Durve &Kulshreshtra, 1988) is indeed puzzling (Talwar &Jhingran, 1991).

Eight genera with 20 species have been reported from the Indian region and these have been revised by Tilak (1987) and recently reviewed by Talwar &Jhingran (1991). Ptychobarbus rattanensis Malhotra & Jyoti, 1975. described from Kashimir, has been shown (Talwar & Jhingran, 1991) to be a junior synonym of Ptychobarbus conirOSlris Steindachner. The discovery of the genus Gynocypris in Ladakh of the Indian rigion by Talwar (1978), was indeed a noteworthy find. Tilak (1987) redescribed G. biswasi Talwar and gave more distinguishing characters to its specific identity.

Subfamily Garrinae

Five genera recognised; two in Indian region. The genus Crossocheilus is Oriental but extends into Afghanistan and Iran, and bas been recently revised by Banarescu (~986); Kottelat (1987) discussed the generic name and type-species. The genus Garra has been revised by Menon (1964); in some species the mental adhesive disc is weakly developed, vestigial, or perhaps even absent; this, coupled with ontogenetic changes associated with the mental disc (see Hora, 1921) and the highly variable timing of its appearance, has contributed to considerable systematic confusion at the genus as well as species level. Ga"a satyendranathi Ganguly & Dutta, 1973, described from Bihar; Garia tirapensis Datta & Barman, 1984, described fron Arunachal Pradesh; and Garra menoni Rema Devi and Indra, 1984, described from the Silent Valley (Kerala), are all clearly conspecific with pertinent well-defmed species (Talwar &, Jhingran, 1991).

Family PARASILORHYNCHIDAE

This family was proposed by Rao & Yazdani (1978) and comprise small hillstream fIShes inhabiting the Western Ghats, Satpura mountains and the Bailadila range in Madhya Pradesh. Rao &, Yazdani (1978) reviewed the single genus, Parapsilorhynchus,.which comprises three species.

Family PSaORHYNCHlDAE

This family comprises a single genus (Psilorhynchus) of small hillstream fishes and is known to occur primarily in the Gangetic drainage of south-east Asia. The genus has recently been revised by Rainboth (1983) who described a new species, P. gracilis from Bangladesh. As presendy understood the genus P silorhynchus comprises of five species, all in the Indian region. Wu et ale (1981) combine this group of fishes with Cyprinidae, but Nelson (1984) recognises the family as distinct.

Family BALITORIDAE The members of this family are small freshwater fishes which occupy torrential and swift streams from low to high altitudes (Kottelat, 1989) and were till recently treated under the family• group name Homalopteridae.

Subfamily Balitorinae

The balitorids are small fishes extensively distributed in the hills of south-east Asia; some 28 genera' containing about 120 species (Kottelat, 1988). In India, they are found in the hills of Meghalaya and along the eastern Himalaya as far as the Tista and Kosi drainages on the one hand. and the Western Ghats of peninsular India on the other; four genera and ten species in the Indian region (Menon, 1987). Kottelat (1988) revised the genus Balitora; and Menon (1987) the geneza Bhavania, Homaloptera and Travancoria.

Subfamily Nemacheilinae

This subfamily comprises the loaches which are mainly found in the moritane and submotane regions, but rarely in the plains. These fishes are usually referred to as the subf8ll)i1y Noemacheilinae (the correct spelling actually is Nemacheilinae vide Kottelat, 1987). Four genera; three in the Indian region. The genus Aborichthys has been revised by Menon (1987) but an important ommission was Aborichthys tikaderi Bannan, 1984; and the genus Triplophysa has also been revised by Menon (1987). The genus Nemacheilus (unwarranted spelling variant Noemacheilus by Menon, 1987; vide Kottelat, 1987; Roberts, 1989) has been revised by Menon (1987); about 200 s~ies, 63 in the Indian region. Menon (1987) gave an unjustified replacement name for Nemacheilus elongatus (Sen & Nalbant, 1981). Noemacheilus assamensis Menon, 1987, described from Assam, is undoubtedly identical with Nemacheilus labeosus (Kotte!at, 1982) from the Salween drainage (Talwar &, Jhingran, 1991).

Family COBITIDAE

The loaches are distributed in Eurasia and northern Africa, but the greatest diversity is in southern Asia. They are bottom dwellers, mosUy of small size and are mainly found in streamS,

Pisces 591

riyers and lakes of hilly areas. A number of loaches are popular with aquarists. The two subfamilies currently recognised are present in the Indian region.

Subfamily Cobitinae

Thirteen genera with about 40 species; seven genera with 14 species in the Indian region (Talwar & Jhingran, 1991). Whitley (1931) proposed a new generic name, Eno~arbichthys, for Platacanthus maculatus Day, 1870, a species presently known only on its .holotype; Silas (1960) redescribed this specimen. Tilak &Husain (1981) reviewed the genus Lepidocephalus; they relegated L. menoni Pillai &Yazdani, 1976, to the synonymy of L. annandalei (Chaudhuri). Talwar & Jhingran (1991) considered L. dibruensis Sen, 1979, conspecific with L. guntea (Hamilton-Buchanan). Banarescu &Nalbant (1968) discovered Neoeucirrhichthys maydelli from Assam. Kottelat (1987) revived the generic status of Pangio Blyth for fishes earlier placed in Acanthophthalmus.,

Subfamily Botiinae Two genera with about 20 ~ies; only Botia with ten species in the Indian region (Talwar &Jhingran, 1991). Banarescu &Nalbant (1968) followed by Taki (1972), reviewed the genus Botla. These fIShes are in principle inhabitants of running waters, mostly in upland areas. Rao & Yazdani (1977) reported Botia day; Hora from the Western Ghats, a misidentification for B. striata Rao (Sane &Chhapgar, 1986).

Ordex SILURIFORMES

The classification of catfishes is not settled and disagreement exists on the interrelationships of the families. Works on their zoogeography and systematics include Chardon (1967, 1968), Gosline (1975) and Lundberg &Baskin (1969). Thirty-one families with' about 400 genera and approximately 2211 species (Nelson, 1984); 13 families with 51 genera and 164 species reported from the Indian region (Talwar & Jhingran, 1991). Two families (Ariidae and Plotosidae) consist largely of marine species, but have representatives that are frequently found in brackish and fresh waters. Other catfish families are freshwater although some have species which can invade brackish water. The Indian catfishes have been reviewed by Misra (1976), Jayaram (1981), Talwar (1984) and Talwar &Jhingran (1991).

Family BAGRIDAE Twenty-seven genera with roughly 205 species (Nelson, 1984); six genera, viz. Aorichthys (revised by Jayaram, 1972; two species), Batasio (revised by Hora &Law, 1941; three species), monotypic Horabagrus. Mystus (reviewed by Jayaram, 1966; 19 species), monotypic Rama (= Chandramara) and Rita (revised by Jayaram, 1966; four species) occur in India. These fishes are mainly freshwater but at least one species (Mystus gulio) is partly marine. Some spe.cies are kept as aquarium fishes while others are very large and important as food fishes. Aorichthys aor (Hamilton-Buchanan) and A. seengha/a (Sykes) are important giant catfishes of India and extensively caught in the larger rivers. They attain a length of about 1.5 m; they fight well and provide a good sport. Ganguly &Datta (1975) described Mystus mukherjii from Bihar, but this is conspecific with Mystus cavasius (Hamilton~Buchanan) (vide Talwar &Jhingran, 1991). Rama¬krishniah (1988) discovered Mystus krishnensis from the Krishna river. Tilak (1988) discussed the specific identity of Chandramara chandramara and extended its distributional range to Uttar Pradesh.

Family SILURIDAE

This is one of the most distinctive and well-defined families of catfishes and are chiefly Asiatic in distribution. Nine or ten genera with roughly 45 species; five genera in Indian region, viz. Kryptopterus (one species recently discovered by Datta et al., 1987), Ompok (reviewed by Talwar & Jhingran, 1991; four species), Pinniwallago (one species), Silurus (revised by Kobayakawa, 1989; four species) and Wallago (revised by Roberts, 1982; one species). Wallago attu is one of

the largest local catfishes and thrives well in livers and tanks also. It is a good sport fish and grows to about 2 m and weighs more than 45 kg.

Family SCHILBEIDAE About 16 genera equally divided between Africa and Asia, most of the Asian genera restricted to the Indian subcontinent; seven in the Indian region, viz. Ailia (reviewed by Hora, 1941; two specIes), Clupisoma (reviewed by Talwar &Jhingran, 1991; five species), Eutropiichthys (reviewed by Hora, 1937; three species), monotypic Neotropius, Pseudeotropius (reviewed by Hora,I941; two species), monotypic Proeutropiichlhys (reviewed by Talwar & Jhingran, 1991) and Silonia (reviewed by Hora, 1938; two species).

Tilak (1964) considered the genera Neotropius and Pseudeutropius as bagrids based on osteological characters. In India these catfishes constitute a striking and well-marked group. Some of them are among the largest freshwater fishes of Asia. Little study has been devoted to these economically valuable fIShes which are known to undertake spawning migrations up some rivers.

Family PANGASIIDAE

This family ranges from the Indian subcontinent (including the Indus basin but not Sri Lanka), through mainland south-east Asia, Sumatra and Borneo. Five or six genera; only one genus with a single species in the Indian region. Pangasius pangasius (Hamilton-Buchanan) grows upto 1.5 m and inhabits the lower portions of large rivers and estuaries in India, and provide a good sport to anglers.

Family AMBLYCIPITIDAE

These small fishes inhabit swift streams of southern Asia. Two genera recognised, with five species; the monotypic genus, Amblyceps is restricted to the foot-hills of Himalaya in India (Talwar &Jhingran, 1991).

Family AKYSIDAE

Alcysids are small to minute, cryptically coloured, secretive catfishes of the freshwaters of southern Asia. Three genera; one in the Indian region which is res"tricted to Burma. Hora (1936) revised the genus Akysis; six species recognised, two in the Indian region. They are diminutive inhabitants of mountain streams and lakes. .

Family SISORIDAE

Sisoridae is an exclusively Asian family of bottom dwelling catfishes and has its greatest diversity in the Indian subcontinent. About 20 genera with at least 68 species (Nelson,1984); 18 genera in the Indian region with 65 species. Roberts (1983) revised the genus Bagarius; B. yarrell;; Sykes is the giant species of Bagarius and the largest Asian catfish, the true B. bagarius is relatively small Tilak (1988) gave the salient• diagnostic characters of the monotypic genus Conta; and Kottelat (1983) reviewed the the genus Erethistes. Li (1986) presented a synopsis of the various species of Glyptothorax and proposed two new subgenera. Tilak (1978) reviewed the genus Hara; Talwar and Jhingran (1991) relegated Hara saharasai Datta Munshi & Srivastava, 1988, described from Bihar, to the synonymy of Hara hara (Hamilton, 1822).

Family CLARIIDAE

This distinctive air-breathing Afro-Asian catfish family comprises some 14 or 15 genera with about 100 species (Nelson, 1984; Roberts, 1989); two genera with five species in the Indian region. Teugels &Roberts ( 1987) designated the type-species of the genus C larias. Of the four species of Clarias known from the Indian region, C. dayi Hora is a rare species being known only by a single specimen (Talwar &Jhingran, 1991) The monotypic genus, Horaglanis represented by the blind catfish, H. krishnai Menon, is fairly common in the wells of Kottayam district of Kerala, but is of little interest to fisheries.

Family HETEROPNEUSTIDAE This family is represented by a single genus with two species, both in the Indian region (Hora, 1936) These fIShes live in stagnant pools and ditches deficient in oxygen. Heteropneustesfossilis (Bloch) is a fish of high economic importance and is in great demand beCause of its medicinal value. Datta Munshi and Srivastava (1988) h~ve reported Heteropneustes microps (Gunther) in-Bihar and Uttar Pradesh.

Family CHACIDAE This small family contains a single genus, Chaca, restricted to the Indian subcontinent and Malay Peninsula. Roberts (1982) followed by Brown &Ferraris (1988), revised this genus. Of the three species recognised, two occur in the Indian region. Chaca chaca (Hamilton-Buchanan) is fairly common in the catches of the Ganga-Brahmaputra dtainages, but is not eaten perhaps due to its ugly appearance. Chaca burmensis was discovered from Burma by Brown &Ferraris in 1988.

Family OLYRIDAE

This family comprises specialised hill stream fishes of a single genus, Olyra, only. Roberts (1989) considers these fishes as apparently bagrids. Hora «1936) revised the genus Olyra, with four species. Menon (1974) considers the genus as monotypic. The genus which is restricted to eastern Himalaya and western Thailand, is badly in need of revision.

Family ARIIDAE

The "secatfishes" or Ariidae, include a number of species endemic to fresh water. About 20 genera with about 120 species; six genera with 23 specjes in the Indian region. Jayaram (1982) reviewed the Indian species of the genus Arius. Wheeler &Baddokwaya (1981) give reasons for not recognising Tachysurus as the senior synonym of the species and commercially important Arius. Kailola (1986) discussed the systematics of Arius thalassinus (Ruppell) and A. bilineatus (Valenciennes). The genera Batrachocephalus. Hemipimelodus. Osteogeneiosus and Ketengus have also been reviewed by Jayaram (1982).

Family PLOTOSIDAE

Found in tropical and subtropical waters .of the Indo-west Pacific; freshwater species limited to Australia and New Guinea. About eight genera with about 30 species (Nelson, 1984); 'one genus with three species in the Indian region. The genus Plotosus has been reviewed by Goman &Taylor (1982). Plotosus canius Hamilton-Buchanan contributes a moderate fishery in the Hooghly estuary (West Bengal) and also in other brackish water lakes along the east coas,t of India. Plotosus lineatus (Thunberg) contributes to artisanal fISheries in the Hooghly estuary and Chilka lake.

Order SALMONIFORMES

Family ARGENTINIDAE

Five genera and at least 50 species; only Nansenia groenlandicus (Richardson) in the Indian region (Misra, 1976). Nelson (1984) places this genus in the family Bathylagidae.

Family ALEPOCEPHAiIDAE

The Alepocephalidae are moderate to large deep-sea salmoniform fishes, most commonly encountered below 1,000 m. In terms of biomass and spec.es diversity, the family is one of Inost important in. the deep sea. The group is poorly known, but regional reviews have been prepared for the Indian Ocean (Sazonov &Ivanov, 1980). The genus Alepocephalus needs revision; at least 15 species, four in the Indian region. The genus Aulastomomorpha is represented in the Indian region by A. phosphorops Alcock, the other species is restricted to the Gulf of Oman. The genus Bathytroctes has been reviewed by Markle &Quero (1984); four species known, two in the Indian

Animal Resources ofIndia

region, viz. B. squamosus (Alcock) and B. rostratus Gunther. The genus Einara is known by two species, but only E. eduntula (Alcock) in Indian Seas. Of the seven recognised species of Conocara, only C. microlepis (Lloyd) inhabits Indian waters. The genus Leptoderma is poorly known and is in need of revision; about five species of which Leptoderma affinis Alcock is reported off the Krishna delta. The unique holotype of this species was located. in the ZSI by Talwar (1977), but is unfortunately mutilated. The genus Nercetes is known by three to five species; two in the Indian region. The genus Rouleina is known by about five species, two in the Indian region, viz. R. guentheri (Alcock) and R. squamilatera (Alcock).

Family PLATYTROCTIDAE

Platytroctids are a fascinating scene in the evolutionary play; this interesting deep-sea fish family has been reviewed by Matsui &Rosenblatt (1977). Twelve genera with 31 species; two genera with two species in Indian seas, viz. Platytroctogen mirus Lolyd and Platytroctes apus Gunther.

Family GALAXIIDAE

This family comprises cold-water fishes which form the dominant element in the freshwater fish fauna of the Southern Hemisphere. The status of Galaxias indicus Day, 1888, from the coasts of Bengal and Madras, has remained a mystery since the types are lost and there has been no subsequent record of the species from the Indian region. Mc Dowall (1973) evaluated the status of

G. indicus and considered it a nomen dubium.

Family SALMONIDAE

The members of this family are primarily denizens of the Arctic and northern Seas. Man-made introductions' and transplantations have spread several species of salmons and trouts to reas far beyond their natural distributional range where they are said to be fairly established. Species of Salvelinus, Salmo and Onchorhynchus have been introduced into Indian waters and these have been reviewed by'Jhingran &Sehgal (1985) and recently by Talwar &Jhingran (1991).

Order STOMIIFORMES

Mesoplagioc and bathypelagic fishes distributed in all oceans, with nine families, about 50 genera and 300 species ( Smith & Heemstra, 1986) Family classification last revised by Weitzman (1974).

Family GONOSTOMATIDAE

Elongate bioluminescent fishes of oceanic, mesopelagic and batbypelagic habitats found throughout the world's oceans. Six genera with about 27 species known; four genera with nine species in the Indian region (Misra, 1976). Grey (1960, 1964) reviewed species ofall genera except Cyclothone; Mukhacheva reviewed Gonostoma in 1972, Cyclothone in 1964 and 1974, and Diplophos in 1978. The genus Cyclothone ( with 12 species) occurs in virtually all seas and has, perhaps, the greatest abundance of individuals of any fish genus in the world. The monotypic genus Triplophos represented by its type-species, T. hemingi (Mc ArdIe), was discovered originally from the Bay of Bengal.

Family STERNOPTYCHIDAE

Bioluminescent fishes, primarily of mesopelagic but some bathypelagic habitat, found in all major oceans. Ten genera with a total of about 45 species, revised by Baird (1971); four genera in Indian seas, viz. Argyroplecus (four species), Polyipnus (one species), Sternoplyx (one species) and Valenciennellus (one species).

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Family PHOTICHTHYIDAE

Bioluminescent fishes of mesopelagic and batbypelagic habit, found in all oceans. Seven genera with about 21 species; three genera (Photichthys, Polymetme and Vinciguerria) with four species in the Indian region. They are of no commercial importance. .

Family CHAULIODONTIDAE

The viperfishes occur in mid-depths of open oceans around the world. One genus with eight species, recently revised by Parin &Novikova (1974). Chauliodus pammelas Alcock occurs in the Laccadive Sea and C. sloani Schneider in the Bay of Bengal, of the Indian region.

Family STOMIIDAE

Two genera with a total of eleven species; recently revised by Shcherbachev &Novikova (1976) and Gibbs (1969; Stomias only). The genus Stomias (with two species) only occurs in the Indian region, viz. S. affinis Gunther and S. nebulosus Alcock.

Family ASTRONESTIllDAE Five genera with a total of about 35 species; revised by Regan & Trewavas (1929) and Gibbs (1964). One genus, Astronesthes, with three species in the Indian region (Misra, 1976; Silas, 1969). Silas (1976) listed Astronesthes lucifer Gilbert from Indian Seas for the fIrst time.

Family MELNOSTOMIIDAE

Fifteen genera with a total of about 200 species; revised by Regan &Trewavas (1929). Of these only, MelanostDmias melanops Brauer reported from Indian waters.

Family MALACOSTEIDAE

Black to dark brown, mesopelagic or bathypelagic fishes occurring in all oceans. Three genera with about 17 species (Morrow, 1964; Smith & Heemstra, 1986); two genera., viz. Photostomias (one species) and Malacosteus (one species) in the Indian region (Misra, 1976).

Family IDIACANTHIDAE

One genus, Idiacanthus with about four species (Gibbs, 1964); I.fasciola Peters only has been reported from Indian waters.

Order AULOPIFORMES

The Aulopiformes comprise about 15 families of predatory marine fishes, most of which have become adapted to a deep sea habitat Family CHLOROPHTHALMIDAE Greeneyes are circumglobal at temperate and tropical latitudes. 1;hey are benthic fishes, dwelling on the outer continental shelf, slope, rise and abyssal' plain. Seven genera with 38 species (Sulak, 1977); four genera with eight species in Indian waters, viz. Bathypeterois (three species), Bathytyphlops (one species), Ipnops (one species), Parasudis (one species) and Chlorophthalmus (~ospecies). Talwar (1973) relegated C. bicornis Norman, 1939 to the synonymy of C. corniger Alcock, 1894. The holotype of Bathypterois atriocolor Alack, 1897 was rediscovered in the collections of the Zoological Survey of India by Talwar (1977).

Family SCOPELARCHIDAE

Scopelarchids are oceanic and mesopelagic or bathypelagic in habitat They have no commercial value. Four genera with a total of 17 species, recently revised by Johnson (1984); Scopelarchus guentheri Alock is the only representative of the family in the Indian region (Misra, 1976).

Family SYNODONTIDAE

Four genera with 50 species; three genera with 18 species in the Indian region. Indo-west pacific Synodus revised by Cressey (1981). Dutt and Sagar (1981) reported several new records of Saurida sp. from Indian waters. Bottom-dwelling fishes; their flesh is of good quality and flavour, though bony.

Family HARPADONTIDAE

A single genus, Harpadon, with three species, all in the Indian region (Talwar 1984). Harpadon nehereus (Hamilton-Buchanan) constitutes a flShery of great commercial importance in India.

Family PARALEPIDIDAE They are meso-to bathypelagic and may occur in very large numbers from near the surface to mid-depths (over 800m); some species are common over the continental shelf. Twelve genera with about 50 species; four genera with six species in the Indian region, viz. Lestidium (three species vide Talwar, 1973); Stemonosudis (one species) and Paralepis (one species) (Misra, 1976); and Sudis (one speci~s, Silas, 1969). Barracudinas are taken as bycatch in offshore trawl fisheries (pelagic trawls).

Family EVERMANNELLIDAE

Evermannellids are oceanic and. mesopelagic in habitat. Three genera and seven species, recently revised by Johnson (1982); only Coccorella atrata (Alcock)in the Indian region. Probably Evermannella indica (Brauer, 1906) also occurs in Indian waters.

Family ALEPISAURIDAE

Large pelagic fishes, attaining a length of 2 m. Lancetfishes occur in the lower epipelagic realm of the open ocean and often caught on tuna longlines. Like many of their relatives, Lancetfish are synchronous hermaphrodites with male and female parts of the gonad active at the same time (Smith• &Atz, 1973). one genus, Alepisaurus, with two species, both recorded from Indian waters (Silas, 1965).

Order MYCTOPHIFORMES

Family NEOSCOPELIDAE

Benthopelagic over continental and island slope regions or oceanic, bathypelagic in tropical and subtropical waters of all three oceans. Three genera with six species (Nafpaktitis, 1977); two genera with two species in the Indian region (Misra, 1976). Neoscopelus macrolepidotus Johnson is reported from the Andaman Sea and south-west coast of India (Samuel, 1966), but Scope/engys tristis Alcock recorded only from the Laccadive Sea in the Indian region. (Jones & Kumaran, 1980).

Family MYCTOPHIDAE

The lantern fishes are high-oceanic mesopelagic-bathypelagic or pseudoceanic pelagic/epibenthic from Arctic to Antarctic waters. Thirty genera (paxton, 1979), with about 235 species; thirteen' genera in Indian waters (Kotthaus, 1972; Misra, 1976; Fischer & Bianchi, 1984), viz. Benthosema (three species), Bolinichthys (two species), Centrobranchus (one'species), Centroscopelus (one species), Diaphus (Indian Ocean species revised by Nafpaktitis, 1978; 14 species), Diogenichthys (two species), Gonichthys (one species), Hygophum (two species), Lampanyctus (three species), Lepidophanes (one species), Myc/ophum (six species), Notolychnus (one species) and Symbolophorus (two species). There has not been a family revision at the species level since Fraser-Bronner's (1949) study.

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GADIFO~S

Gadifonns are primarily marine benthopelagic or batbypelagic fishes of worldwide distribution. Eight families; three in the Indian region.

Family MORIDAE About 15 genera and 55-60 species (Smith and Heemstra, 1986); only Physiculus with two species in Indian waters. Fishes of the continental slope and abyssal depths.

Family BREGMACEROTIDAE A worldwide revision by D' Ancona &Cavinto (1965); Houde (1984) discusses larval development. One genus, Bregmaceros, with about seven valid species; only B. macclellandi Thompson in Indian waters. This interesting 13 cm codlike fish is caught along the west coast of India supporting a seasonal fIShery around Bombay (Talwar, 1984).

Family MACROURIDAE

More than 250 species (in about 30 genera) in all oceans from 100 m to more than 5000 m. Almost all benthopelagic, but a few bathypelagic. Family most recently revised by Marshall &Iwamto (1973) and Okamura (1970). The family is represented by ten genera in the Indian region, viz. Bathygadus (one species), Coelorinchus (three species), Coryphaenoides (four species), Gadomus (one species), Hymenocephalus (one species), Macrourus (one species), Malacocephalus (one species), Nezumia (four species), Sphagemacrurus (one species) and Ventrifossa (one species).

Order OPIDDIIFORMES

Ophidiiforms are primarily marine and occupy a variety of habitats, from the intertidal region to the greatest depths of the sea. Cohen &Nielsen (1978) recognise 87 genera divided into four families, and about 294 species in the world; four families in the Indian .region.

Family OPHIDIIDAE

About 39 genera with 135 species; the genera reviewed by Cohen &Nieisen (1978). The fIShes of 14 genera have been reported from Indian waters, viz. Bassozetus (one species), Brotula (one species), Dicrolene (three species), Glyptophidium (recently revised by Nielsen &Machida, 1988; two species), Holomycteronus (one species), Hypopleuron (one species), Lamprogrammus (two species), Monomitopus (two species), Neobythites (one species), Porogadus (two species), Pycnocraspedum (one species) Sirembo (one species) and the monotypic genus Tauredophidium. Further, the monotypic genus Spottobrutula represented by its type-s•pecies, S. mahodadi, was discovered by Cohen &Nielsen (1978) from the Andaman Sea.

Family CARAPIDAE

A review of the genera is provided by Cohen &Nielsen (1978) and a limited revision of the family by Arnold (1956). Trout (1981) has recently reviewed the systematics, ecology and behaviour of carapine fishes. At least six genera containing abou~ 30 species; three genera with five species in the Indian region (Mahadevan, 1962; Jones &Kumaran, 1980), viz. Carapus (three species), Encheliophis (one species) and Onuxodon (one species). Pearlfishes are morphologically conservative and hence difficult to identify. The family needs revision.

Family BYTHITIDAE

About 23 genera with at least 200 species, half of which are undescribed (Smith &Heemstra, 1986); seven genera reported from the Indian region, placed in eight species. Silas (1969) listed the genus Catactyx off the south-west coast of India; Menon &Rama-Rao (1972) reported Dinematichthys iluocoeteoides Bleeker for the f1l"st time in the Indian region; and Cohen &Nielsen (1972) revised the genus Saccogaster.

Family APHYONIDAE Deep-sea fIShes, reviewed by Nielsen (1969) and Cohen &Nielsen (1978). The aphyonid genera are notable for a number of neotenic characters and convergence has been suggested. Five genera with about 20 species; only Barathronus diaphanus Brauer, 1906, hss been reported from Indian waters.

Order BATRACHOIDIFORMES

A single family with about 18 genera and 60 species. Batrachoidids are thought to be closely related to the Lophiifonnes and Gobiesociformes (Rosen and Petterson, 1969).

Family BA1RACHOIDIDAE

The toadfishes are primarily coastal benthic in temperate and tropical seas, a few species entering brackish waters. Nineteen genera with about 64 species; two genera, viz. Austrobatrachus (one species) and Batrichthys (one species) in Indian waters (Hutchin, 1981; Talwar &Jhingran, 1991). The toadfishes are of no commercial interest

Order LOPInIFORMES

Anglerfishes are inshore' benthic on muddy to rocky bottom, coral and rocky reefs~ to meso and bathypelagic. Sixteen families with about 59 genera and 250 species; six families in the Indian region.

Family LOpmIDAE

Four genera with a total of 25 species (Caruso, 1981); three genera with six species in the Indian region. the monotypic genus Lophiomus and Lophiodes (four species) are deep-water species. Lophius vomerinus Valenciennes has been reported in the Bay of Bengal off Burma. This group of fishes has been revised by Caruso (1983) and their intergeneric relationships discussed by Caruso (1985).

Family ANTENNARIIDAE

Anglers (also called 'frogfishes' or 'toadfishes') are of no economic importance except in the aquarium trade. Thirteen genera with a to~ of 40 species; three genera and eight species in the Indian region. Generic revision by Pietsch (1984), and an 3ccount of the systematics, zoogeography and behavioural ecology by Pietsch &Grobecker (1987). Schultz (1975) revised the Indo-Pacific species of the genus Antennarius and described a new species from Vizagapatanam (Andhra Pradesh). The genus Antennatus represented by A. tuberosus (Cuvier), is restricted to Sri Lanka in the Indian region.

Family CHAUNACIDAE

Species inhabit continental slopes in all oceans. A single genus, Chaunax, with about twelve species (Smith and Heemstra, 1986), although Ie Danois' world revision (1919) recognises only nine species; two species in the Indian region.

Family OGCOCEP~IDAE

Mainly benthic fIShes that walk on the bottom with their pectoral and pelvic fms; most species <x;cur in rather deep water. Bradbury (1967) reviewed the genera of the world. Nine genera and about 60 species; five genera in the Indian region, viz. Dibranchus (two species), Halieutaea (four species), Halicmetus (one species) Halieutopsis (two species) and Mplthopsis (four species).

Family ONEIRODIDAE

Nearly cosmopolitan in all oceans of the world. Fifteen genera and about 55 species. The genus Oneirodes revised by Pietsch (1974), is represented by O.flagellifer (Regan &Trewavas), and the

Pisces 599

genus Lophodolus represented by L. indicus Lloyd, in Indian waters.

Family DICERATIIDAE

Two genera each with two species, revised by Uwate (1979); only Diceratias bispinos.us (Gunther) in the Indian region. Paroneirodes glomerosus Alcock, 1890, was relegated by Uwate (1979) to the synonymy of Diceratias bispinosus (Gunther).

Order CYPRINODONTIFORMES

Family EXOCOETIDAE

Flying fishes are typical members of the epipelagic fish community that inhabits surface waters of the open ocean. Seven genera with a total of about 60 species; five genera with ~welve species in the Indian region (Talwar, 1984) Generic classification revised by Parin (1961); the Indian species reviewed'by Talwar (1984). The taxonomy of the Indo-Pacific species is in need of revision.

Family HEMIRAMPHIDAE

Most haltbeaks are marine and epipelagic, but some inhabit freshwaters. Twelve genera and about 80 species; seven genera with 21 species in the Indian region (Tal war, 1984; Talwar & Jhingran, 1991). Mohr (1926, 1936) has revised the genera Zenarchopterus and Dermogenys; and Parin, Collette &Shcherbachev (1980) the genera Hemiramphus, Hyporhamphus and Rhynchorhamphus. Collette (1982) rediscovered the rare halfbeak, Hyporhamphus xanthopterus Valenciennes, 1846, a species endemic to Vembanad lake, Kerala

Family BELONIDAE

Epipelagic, most species marine (mostly neretic). There have been extensive changes since the family was reviewed by Mees (1962, 1964). Indo-Pacific species were reviewed by Parin (1967). Ten genera with a total of 32 species; five genera with ten species in the Indian region (Talwar, 1984). Minor commercial importance; flesh excellent in flavour although some people have misgivings about eating it owing to their green bones.

Family ORYZIIDAE One genus, Oryzias, with seven species (Rosen, 1964), confined to the fresh and brackish waters of India and Japan to the Indo-Austtalian archipelago. Rosen and Parenti (1981) treated these fIShes in the Adrianichthyidae. These small fishes are useful mosquito larvivorous. Only Oryzias melastigma (Mc Clelland) in the Indian region.

Family HORAICHTHYIDAE

One species, Horaichthys setnai Kulkarni found in 1937, occurs along coastal India from near the Gulf of Kutch to Trivandrum (Hubbs, 1941; Silas, 1959). This is one of the smallest known tlSh in India.

Family APLOCHEILIDAE

About 15 genera with 210 species; only one genus, Aplocheilus occurs naturally in the Indian region; fishes of the genera Cynolebias, Nothobranchius, Epiplatys and Aphyosemion were brought to India from tropical west Africa for private aquaria, etc. The genus Aplocheilus with five species, have been revised by Parenti (1981); four species in the Indian region (Talwar and Jhingran, 1991).

Family CYPRINODONTIDAE Small, usually creek-dwelling fishes which are related to the Gambusinos. Twenty-nine genera

Animal Resources ofIndia

and about 268 species (Nelson, 1984); one genus in the Indian region in fresh and brackish water. The genus Aphanius was revised by Parenti (1981); only one species, A. dispar (Ruppell) in India which is beautifully coloured and is fairly suitable for aquaria purposes.

Family POECILIIDAE

This family is a large one and has been reviewed by Rosen &Bailey(1936). They are naturally restricted to the New World fishes. Two members of the family, viz. Gambusia and Poecilia, were at different times introduced into India for antimalarial work. Today G. affinis (Baird &. Girard) has the widest distribution of any freshwater fish in the world, largely as a result of mosquito control programmes.

Order ATHERINIFORMES

Family ATHERINIDAE

Small silvery fishes, occurring in temperate and tropical waters of all oceans, usually in large schools. Of no great commercial value, but important as bait and forage fish for commercial species. About 29 genera with over 120 species around the world; three genera with six species in the Indian region (talwar. 1984). Atherinomorus endrachtensis (Quoy &Gaimard) occurs in the Andaman Sea (Herre, 1941), but was overlooked by Talwar (1984).

Family NOTOCHEIRIDAE Two genera with six species (Rosen. 1964); one species, Iso natalensis Regan in the Indian region. Iso flosindicus Herre. 1944, is considered identical with I. natalensis Regan (Smith &. Heemstra. 1986).

Ordez LAl\1PRIFORMES

The great diversity of body shape and fin development of the lamprifonnes makes it difficult to diagnose this order.

Family VELIFERIDAE Rare fishes of the Indo-Pacific region, reviewed by Walters (1960); taken in depths of 40-110

m. Two genera with two species; only Veliftr hypstlopterus Bleeker has been reported (as V. ajHcanus) from Indian waters by Dutt (1963).

Family LOPHOTIDAE

Two monotypic genera. reviewed by Walters &. Fitch (1960). Eumecichthys /isld (Gunther) only has been reported in India (Dutt. 1976). This is a rare fish but widely distributed in the Indo¬west Pacific.

Family REGALECIDAE

Rare fishes of open ocean habitat. Two monotypic genera; only Regalecus glesna Ascanius in Indian waters (Day. 1889).

Family ATELEOPODIDAE

A bathypelagic family comprising four genera with about 8 to 12 species. One genus, Ateleopus with two species. viz. A. indicus Alcock and A. natalensis Regan in Indian waters (Samuel, 1963).

Ordez BERYCIFORMES Zehren (1979) discusses the comparative osteology and phylogeny of these fIShes.

Family MONOCENTRIDAE An Indo-Pacific family of three or four species belonging to two genera; occur primarily off South Africa, Japan and Australia. One species, Monocentris japonicus (Houttuyn) only occurs in the Indian region. The light organ on the lower jaw contains symbiotic luminous bacteria.

Family TRACHICHTHYIDAE Five genera with about 26 species (Nelson, 1984), most species occur in deep water; two genera and three species in India. Hoplostethus intermedius (Hector) and H. mediterraneus Cuvier were recorded from the Bay of Bengal by Alcock (1899), and Gephryoberyx darwini (Johnson) was reported for the fast time from Indian waters by Talwar (1975).

Family BERYCIDAE Two genera with seven species; both genera with two species listed from Indian deep waters by Silas (1969), viz. Baryx splendens Lowe and Centroberyx spinosus (Gilchrist) (as Trachichthoides prox. spinosus).

Family HOLOCENTRIDAE Eight genera with about 61 species; four genera with 19 species in the Indian region. The genus Myripristis comprises 21 species, revised by Greenfield (1974) and supplemented by a review by Randall &Gueze (1981); seven species known from the Indian region. The genus Ostichthys was revised by Randall, Shimezu &Yamakawa (1982); of the eight r~ognised species, two are reported from India. The genus Sargocentrum comprises about 26 species (Randall and Heemstra, 1985); seven species in the Indian region. In an osteological study, Li et ale (1981) erected the new genus Dispinus for Sargocentrum rubrum. Neoniphon (syn. Flammeo) contains five species, reVised by Randall &Heemstra (1985); three species in the Indian region.

Family POL YMlXIIDAE One genus, with six species, revised by Lachner (1955); Polymixiajaponicus Gunther has been recently reponed (Talwar, 1975) from India; P. Jusca 'Kotthaus, 1970, also probably occurs in Indian waters.

Family MELAMPHAIDAE Small dark brown to blackish deep-sea species. Five genera with a total of 33 species, most recently revised by Ebeling &Weed (1973); Scopelogadus mizolepis (Gunther) has been reported (Alcock, 1899) from the Bay of Bengal,-and probably Poromitra oscitans Ebeling also occurs in Indian waters (parin and Bozodu~a, 1988).

Older ZEIFORMES

Family ZEIDAE

Near bottom fishes, common in trawls 100 to 300 m. Five genera with a total of nine species; two genera with two species in the Indian region. The monotypic genus Cyottopsis represented by its type-species, C. roseus (Lowe), and Zenopsis conchifer (Lowe) has been reported from the Arabian Sea by Talwar (1975). Heemstra (1980) gives a map showing locality records, and also discusses the systematics of these fishes.

Family CAPROIDAE

Two genera with eleven species; only the genus Antigonia with two species in Indian waters, recently revised by Parin & Borodulina (1986).

Family GRAMMICOLEPIDIDAE Three genera with a total of five species (Heemstra, 1980): Silas (1969) lists the genera Daramattus and Xenolepidichthys from the deep waters of the south-west coast of India. Uncommon and not commercially important.

Ordez INDOSTOMIFORMES

This order was proposed by Banister (1970) and contains a single family only.

Family INDOSTOMIDAE Small freshwater" fishes restricted to Upper Burma, comprising a single monotypic genus, Indostomus. Banister (1970) revised the family based on osteological characters: Kottelat (1983) discussed its natural distribution.

Ordez PEGASIFORMES

Family PEGASIDAE

The fishes of the family Pegasidae, popularly known as seamoths, are characteristic in their oddly shaped body (broad and depressed, encased in bony plates) and enlarged, winglike pectoral fms. Pietsch (1978) placed them among the syngnathiforms while Nelson (1984) retained them in a separate order, Pegasiformes. Cryptic colouring and a strange shape enable seamoths to live undetected in weeds. Four genera with five species (Smith and Heemstra, 1986), all restricted to the Indo-Pacific: Pegasus volitans Linnaeus and Eurypegasus draconis (Linnaeus) reported from India (Venkateswarlu, 1976). Parapelagus natans of Munro (1955) from Sri Lanka is a synonym of Pegasus volitans.

Ordez SYNGA~ORMES

The members of this group are noted not only for their bizarre appearance, but also for their strange anatomical and biological characteristics which clearly set them apart from all other living fishes. The order comprises seven families of highly specialised speci~s derived from some primiti ve acanthopterygian.

Family AULOSTOMIDAE

Trumpetfishes are predators and are usually seen on reefs. One genus, Aulostomus, with two or three species (Wheeler, 1955); only A. chinensis (L.) though widespread in the Indo-west Pacific, is restricted to the Laccadives and Sri Lanka in the Indian region (Jones &Kumaran, 1980).

Family FISTULARIIDAE

The flutemouths usually inhabit shallow waters of tropical and subtropical seas. The elongate tubular snout is a very efficient device for sucking in small fishes which are the most •common food item for these stealthy predators. One genus, Fistularia, with four species: recently reviewed by Fritzsche (1976); two species in the Indian region.

Family MACRORHAMPHOSIDAE

Three genera with about 12 species; only Macrorhamphosus scolopax (Linnaeus) has been listed (as M. gracilis) (vide Silas, 1969) from off south-western India where it is taken in good numbers in 80 to 300 m near the edge of the continental shelf off Quilon (Kerala).

Family CENTRISCIDAE

The shrimpfishes have an extremely compressed, mzorlike body with a sharp ventral edge. Two genera with 4 or 5 species recognised, of which only one species, Centriscus scutatus Linnaeus is reported from the Indian region. These fishes swim in a vertical position, with the snout down.

Pisces 603

Family SOLENOSTOMIDAE A small group of Indo-Pacific fishes with one genus, Solenostomus, and perhaps two species of which one (S. cyanopterus Bleeker) has been recorded from India. This ghost pipefish is an uncommon shore fish in weedy areas throughout the Indo-Pacific region. Always found in pairs, swimming head down close to each other. Searching for food they approach the selected place turning their eyes is all directions, simultaneously or separately (Fishelson, 19~).

Family SYNGNATHIDAE This family comprise the pipefishes and seaherses. It includes 52 genera with 205 species (Nelson, 1984; Dawson, 1985); 18 genera with 38 species inhabit the Indian region. Dawson (1985) reviewed the Indo-Pacific pipefishes. Although commonly represented in the decorative motifs of fabrics and artwork, these fishes have little econ<;>mic value. Bellomy (1969) presents an account of the natural history of seahorses. Phoxocampus belcheri (Kaup) was reported from Indian waters for the first time by Jones &Kumaran (1980). Day (1878, 1889) reported Nerophis dumerilli Steindachner from Bombay, an extralimital Atlantic genus and yet to be found in the Indo-Pacific. Kulkarni &Ranade (1974) make no mention of this species in the Fauna oj Maharashtra State Gazetteers, nor does Dawson (1985) in the Indo-Pacific Pipejzshes. The report of Micrognathus brevirostris (Ruppell) by James (1971) is dubious since this species is an endemic Red Sea species.

Order DACTYLOPTERIFORMES'

Family DACTYLOPTERIDAE Two genera and seven species, recently reviewed by Eschmeyer (in press); one genus, Dactyloptera with four species in Indian waters. Besides D. orientalis (Cuvier) and D. macracanthus (Bleeker) which are often taken as bycatch in near shore fisheries; D. petersoni (Nystrom) was listed by Silas (1969) (as Daicocus petersoni) from the south-west coast of India; and D. indicus Achari &Lazarus was recently discovered from the Kerala coast. Silas (1969) also lists Ebisinus cheirophthalmus (Bleeker) in Indian waters.

Ord~ SYNBRANCHWOR~S

Family SYNBRANCIDDAE

The swamp-eels, a family of eel-like percomorph fishes, are well represented in India. Few groups of teleostean fishes have had so long and obscure taxonomic history as the swamp eels. Rosen &Greenwood (1976) discussed the phylogeny and systematic~ of this group of fishes; this major revision and excellent osteological account, formed the basis of future work. Travers (1984) thought synbranchids to be closely related to the Mastacembelidae. Four genera with 15 species; two genera with six species in the Indian region (Talwar and Jhingran, 1991).

oro~ SCORPAENIWORMES

This order contains the "mail cheeked" fishes. About 20 families, but classifications differ with regard to family limits; about 1000 species.

Family SCORPAENIDAE

About 60 genera with about 310 species; 23 genera and 48 species in the Indian region. The genera Ablabys (two species); Apistus (one species); Dendrochirus (two species); Parapterois (one species); Pterois, lovely aquarium fishes but their venomous fin spines can cause very painful wounds (six species); Pontinus (one species) reported by Rama-Rao (1973); Paracentropogon (two species); Esobsia (one species), recently revised by Eschmeyer &Rama-Rao (1977); Parascorpaena (three species), revised by Eschmeyer &Rama-Rao (in press); Gymnapristis (two species); mono typic genus Lioscorpius, revised by Eschmeyer &Collette (1966); Richardsonichthys (one species), recently recorded by Ramanathan et ale (1975); Taenianotus (one species), reported from the Laccadive Sea by Jones &Kumaran (1980); Pteroidichthys (one species), reported by Rama Rao (1980); Ocosia (one species discovered by Poss &Eschmeyer (1976) off Kerala coast ); Scorpaena (one species); Scorpaenodes (six species), revised by Eschmeyer &Rama-Rao (1972); Synderina (one species), reported off the Kerala coast by Talwar (1977); Setarches (two species), revised by Eschmeyer &Collete (1966) and later revie~ed by Rama-~ao (1977); Sebastapistes (five species), recently revised by Escbmeyer &Rama Rao (in press); Scorpaenopsis (four species), revised by Eschmeyer &Rama-Rao (in press); Amblypistes (two species); and Tetraroge (one species), have been reported from Indian waters. Tetraroge niger (Cuvier) is restricted to the Andamans and Sri Lanka in the Indian region.

Family SYNANCEIIDAE

Nine genera with 29 species; six genera with 14 species in the Indian region. The genera lnimicus (three species) and Choridactylus (one species), both revised by Eschmeyer, Rama-Rao &Hallacher (1979); genus Synanecia (three species) revised by Eschmeyer &Rama-Rao (1973); genus Minous (five species), revised by Eschmeryer, Rama-Rao &Hallacher (1979); Pseudosynaneia (one species); and genus Trachinocephalus (one species), have been reported from the Indian region.

Family CARACANTIDDAE

These small fishes live among branches of corals. One genus and four species; Caracanthus unipinna (Gray) and C. madagascariensis (Guichenot) recorde4 in the Indian region (Jones &Kumaran,1980). .

Family APLOACTINIDAE

Velvet fishes occur in the Indo-Pacific region; fifteen genera with 38 species, most of which were characterised by Poss &Eschmeyer (1978); two genera with three species in Indian waters. Acanthosphex leurynnis (Jordan &Seale) was reported by Ramaiyan &Rao (1970) for the fIrSt time from Indian Seas. The genus Cocotropus with two species, viz. C. echinatus (Cantor) and C. steinitzi Eschmeyer &Dor, are both restricted to the Anadaman Sea in the Indian region (Talwar, in press). All members of this poorly known family are extremely rare.

Family TRIGLIDAE

Ten genera with about 69 species; two genera with probably seven species in Indian waters. The Indian Ocean species of Lepidotrigla have been revised by Richards & Saksena (1977); six species in Indian waters. The genus Pterygotrigla is represented in India by P: hemisticta (Temminck &Schlegel) (Day, 1888, 1889). Samuel (1963) erroneously identified a specimen of

P. hemistieta from the Kerala coast as P. pieta (Gunther), a species known from the eastern Pacific Ocean (Richards &Saksena, 1974).

Family PERISTEDIIDAE

Some authors include the peristediids as a subfamily of the Triglidae. About four genera and 20 to 30 species (Smith and Heemstra, 1986); they hal?it the lower shelf/upper slope regions of all oceans between the 60° latitudes. Three genera are represented in the Indian region : Satyrichthys (two species); Peristedion (three species), the identity of the rare P. rivers-andersoni (Alcock, 1894) was discussed by Talwar (1976); and the genus Gargariseus recorded by Talwar &Mukherjee (1978) in Indian waters.

Family PLATYCEPHALIDAE

Benthic fishes frequently found on mud or sand bottoms of continental shelf at depths to about 300 m; most species in 10-100 m; a second group of species is associated with rocky shores or coral reefs. Many species are excellent in eating. Prim~y Indo-Pacific; about 12 genera with a total of 60 species; eight genera, viz. Cociella (one species), Grammoplites (two species), Platycephalus (one species), Inegocia (one species), Rogadius (two species), Thysanophrys (two species), Sargogona (two species) and Suggrundus (one species), have been reported from the Indian region. Platycephalus bengalensis Rao, 1966, described from India, was relegated to the synonymy of Suggrundus rodricensis (Cuvier) by Knapp (1984).

Family PSYCHROLUTIDAE

Talwar (1977) reviewed the status of some type specimens of fishes from the R.I.M.S. "Investigator" collections and included Liparoides beauchampi Lloyd, 1909, in the family Cyclopteridae. The "unique holotype" of this speci.es was destroyed in 1923 (Talwar 1977). According to Stein (1977) this species appears to belong to the Cottidae; it resembles members of the genera like Cottunculus, a species now considered under the family Psychrolutidae by Nelson (1984).

Order PERCIFORMES

The Perciformes is the most diversified and largest of all fish orders, comprising about 150 families and some 7800 species (Nelson, 1984). Indeed, it is the largest vertebrate order. About one-third of all fish species are perciforms. Perciformes dominate in vertebrate ocean life.

Suborder PERCOIDEI

Family AMBASSIDAE

This is one of the few families of percoid fishes which exhibit greater diversity in fresh water than in marine habitats. Nine genera with about 41 species; four genera with 17 species in the Indian region and these have been reviewed by Talwar (1984) and Talwar &Jhingran (1991). Fraser -Brunner (1954) had revised these fishes. Not of commercial iniportance, but useful as bait.

Family CENTROPOMIDAE

Coastal waters, most species being partial to brackish water. Four genera with 18 species, revised by Greenwood (1976); two genera with two species in the Indian region. Lates calcarifer (Bloch) is a coastal and estuarine species, and is one of the important food fishes of India. Psammoperca waigiensis (Cuvier) contributes a minor fishery in Tamil Nadu.

Family ACROPOMITIDAE

Widely distributed, deep-water fishes. The fishes here assigned to this ill-defined 'family' are placed by some recent authors in the Percichthyidae. Four genera with about 15 species; two genera (with two or three species) in the Indian region, viz. Acropoma and Synagrops.

Family SERRANIDAE

This family comprises three subfamilIes, about 48 genera and some 320 species. Common in tropical and subtropical water of all oceans; several species of commercial importance.

Subfamily ANTHIINAE

Anthiines are an assemblage of small to moderate-siZed colourful serranids comprising some 20 genera and at least 100 speci~s; two genera with five species reported from the Indian region: Antmas (three species) (Jones and Kumaran, 1980), and Holanthias (two species), reviewed by Talwar (1976). The discovery of Holanthias perumalioff Kerala, by Talwar (1976) was an interesting fmd.

Subfamily CENTROGENYSINAE

This subfamily is represented by Centrogenys vaigiensis (Quoy &Gaimard) from the Nicobars

Animal Resources ofIndia

in the Indian region. The genus Centrogenys is often placed in its own family but bears a superficial resemblance to the cirrhitids.

Subfamily EPINEPHELINAE

The Epinephelinae (rockcods or groupers) are generally demersal fishes of tropical and subtropical seas. Most of the rockcods appear to be protogynous hermaphrodites, beginning life as females and then later changing sex to spawn as males. About 21 genera with some 170 species; nine genera with about 50 species (Morgans, 1982; Talwar, 1984; Heemstra & Randall, 1984) in Indian waters.

Family DINOPERCIDAE

Two monotypic genera Dinoperca and Centrarchops were previously included in Serranidae. but Heemstra &Hecht (1986) have established a separate family for these two genera. The monotypic genus Dinoperca is apparently common in Pakistan. The genus Centrarchops is known only from the northern coast of Angola.

Family GRAMMISTIDAE

Seven genera with 18 species, revised by Randall (1971); four genera with four species in the Indian region (Talwar, 1984).

Family PSEUDOCHROMIDAE

About eight genera and at least 60 species; one genus, Pseudochromis, with four species in the Indian region. Pseudochromis dutoiti Smith, 1955, is a beautiful and fearless aquarium fIsh that lays and then actively g~ards its eggs in empty shells or similar objects.

Family PLESIOPIDAE

Plesiopids frequent coral reefs and rocky areas. Six genera and about 20 species; a single genus. Plesiops, with four species in the Indian region.

Family ACANTHOCLINIDAE

Three genera with about five species; Acanthoplesiops indicus (Day) only recorded from the Indian region.

Family TERAPONIDAE

Vari (1978), in his excellent revision of this family, recognised 15 genera and 37 species; two genera with four species in the Indian region (Talwar, 1984).

Family KUHLIIDAE

Small fishes of shallow tropical waters, commonly found in freshwater and estuaries. Two genera with seven species; only one genus, Kuhlia, with two species in the Indian region. Kuhlia mugil (Schneider) is a good aquarium fish.

Family PRIACANTHIDAE

Bigeyes are found near the bottom in rocky areas or reefs of tropical and temperate regions in depths of 1 to 400 m. Three genera with about 12 species; all three genera with five species in the Indian region (Talwar, 1984). Talwar (1975) reported Cookeolus boops (Schneider) for the fll'St time from Indian waters and discussed its systematics.

Family APOGONIDAE

About 26 genera with about 192 species; nine genera with about 4S species in Indian waters (Day, 1889; Munro, 1955; Jones &Kumaran, 1980). These are small, carnivorous fishes, mostly of shallow water; not of commercial importance in the Indian region.

Family SILLAGINIDAE Shallow-water fishes of the tropical Indo-west Pacific; often found in or near estuaries. Three genera and about 25 species; two genera in the Indian region, revised by Mc Kay (1985), viz. Sillago (nine species) and monotypic genus Sillaginopsis. These are good food-fish. Family MALACANTInDAE Five genera with 34 species, revised by Dooley (1978) and Randall (1981); two genera with three species in the Indian region (Munro, 1955; Talbot, 1971; Ranganathan, 1972). Family LACT ARIlDAE One monotypic genus. Lactarius lactarius (Schneider) is a highly valued food-fish and contributes to fIShery in the coastal waters of India. Family POMATOMIDAE One genus, Pomatomus, with a single species in all oceans. Pomatomus saltatrix (Linnaeus) is described as being extremely bloodthirsty t killing more fISh than it can consume (Nelson, 1984). Family RACHYCENTRIDAE This family contains a single monotypic genus, Rachycentron. R. canadum (Linnaeus) is often caught offshore over the• continental shelf and frequently seen swimming with remoras of similar appearance; a fme sporting fish, fights gamely and jumps repeatedly. The flesh is good in eating. Family ECHENEIDIDAE Four genera with a total of eight species; all four genera with five species in Indian waters (Jones &Kumaran, 1980). Family CARANGIDAE About 25 genera, with a total of 140 species, 19 genera with 53 species in Indian waters (Ta1w~, 1984). This family contains some very important food fishes and plays a significant part in the commercial fisheries of the Indian region. The generic limits and infrafamilial relationships of carangids are not well established. Talwar (1984) has reviewed the species occurring in Indian waters. Family CORYPHAENIDAE Only one genus with two large colourful species, revised by Gibbs &Collette (1959); both species in Indian waters. Flesh highly esteemed. . Family APOLECIIDAE One monotypic genus, often placed in the Carangidae. Parastromateus niger (Bloch) is an excellent food-fISh and contributes an important fIShery in Indian waters. Family MENIDAE One monotypic genus, Mene. M. maculata (Bloch & Schneider) ~s of minor commercial significance in India. Family LEIOGNATHIDAE An Indo-Pacific family. Three genera and about 20 species; all three genera with 15 species in Indian waters. James (1978) followed by Jones (1985), reviewed these fishes. Singh &Talwar (1978) rediscovered the little-known pony-fish, Gazza achlamys Jordan &Starks from India. Further Singh &Talwar, (1978) discovered Leiognathus indicus from Indian coastal waters. The silver bellies occur in good quantities along the Tamil Nadu coast and contribute a major fishery in this region. Family BRAMIDAE Six genera with 18 species (Mead, 1972): only Brama dussumieri Cuvier reported from the Indian region on the high sea. Family EMMELICHTHYIDAE Three genera with a tOtal of ten species, family revision by Heemstra &. Randall (1977); two genera and two species, viz. Erythrocles acarina Kotthaus, 1974 (discovered from Cochin), and Plagiogenion rubiginosus (Hutton) are r~ported from the Indian region. Family LUTJANIDAE The Lutjanidae is a family composed of 17 genera and 103 species of mostly reef-dwelling marine fishes collectively known as snappers, recently revised by Allen (1985); nine genera with 41 species in Indian waters. Snappers are important food fIShes. Family LOBOTIDAE One monotypic 'genus. Lobotes surinamensis (Blpch) inhabits cpastal waters and enters estuaries in India and is rated highly as a food fISh. Family DATNIOIDIDAE This family was recently established by RQberts (1989) for the monotypic genus Datnioides. D. quadrifasciatus (Sevastianov) is fairly common in the estuaries of the Ganga and the rivers of Burma. It is not esteemed as a food fish. Family GERREIDAE Eight genera with about 40 species: three genera and 10 species in the Indian region, these Indian species have been reviewed by Talwar (1984) and Talwar &Jbingran (1991). These fishes are small to medium-sized, about shallows of tidal creeks, lagoons, coral reefs, etc.; of len enter fresh water. Family HAEMULIDAE Seventeen genera with about 175 species (Nelson, 1984); four genera with 17 ~pecies in the Indian region (Talwar, 1984). Some species contribute to an important component in the trap fishery for perches in the Gulf of Mannar. Family SPARIDAE Twenty-nine genera with about 100 species; six genera with eight species in the Indian region (Talwar, 1984). Fishes of this family are excellent foodfishes and of considerable commercial importance in Indian waters. . Family LETHRINIDAE Five genera with about 30 species (Springer, 1982); four genera in Indian waters, viz. Lethrinus (15 species), monotypic Gnathodentex, Gymnocranius (one spec.ies), Monotaxis (one species) and doubtfully W~ttsia. Sato (1978) revised the Indo-Pacific species of Lethrinus; Lethrinus rubrioperculatus was discovered from the Andaman Sea. Family NEMIPTERIDAE Nemipterids are common in shallow tropical reef areas and offshore waters to 10() m. Four genera with at least 40 species; all four genera with 28 species in Indian waters. The genus' Nemipterus was reviewed by Wongratana (1973). The genus Parascolopsis was recently synonymised with Scolopsis by Rao &Rao (1981), but is now recognised as a distinct genus; six. species in Indian waters (Talwar, 1984). Rao &Rao (1981) reviewed the genus Scolopsis.

Family SCIAENIDAE Sciaenids are common in warm coastal waters and estuaries of the world. Some species attain a large size and are of considerable economic importance. About 50 genera with about 210 species; twenty genera with 40 species in the Indian region and these have been reviewed by Talwar (in press) in the Fauna ofIndia series. Family MULLIDAE Goatfishes are important as a food fish. Six genera worldwide with 55 species (Nelson, 1984); three genera with 20 species in Indian waters (Talwar, 1984; Fischer &Bianchi, 1984). Family MONODACTYLIDAE Two genera with three species; one genus, Monodactylus, with two species in Indian waters (Talwar, 1984). M. argenteus (Linnaeus) is common in the coastal waters and trawling grounds of India. This species is a.favouriteof aquarists since it does well in captivity, living for a number of years. Family PEMPHERIDIDAE Two genera with about 20 species; both genera in Indian waters, viz. Parapriacanthus (one species) and Pempheris (three species) (falwar, 1984). Family BATHYCLUPEIDAE Rare fishes of deep water. One genus, Bathyclupea, with about four species; one species in Indian waters. Berg (1940) placed this family in its own order, Bathyclupeiformes. Family' TOXOTIDAE One genus, Toxotes, with six species, revised by Allen (1978); three species in Indian waters and these have been reviewed by Talwar &Jhingran (1991); of minor interest to fisheries. Family KYPHOSIDAE Three genera with nine species (Smith &Heemstra, 1986); one genus, Kyphosus, with three species in Indian waters (Talwar, 1984). edible but of poor quality. Although they are not of significant commercial importance, they are taken by artisanal fisheries on hook and line, and by gillnets'. Family EPHIPPIDIDAE Five genera with six species; three genera in Indian waters, viz. monotypic genera Tripterodon and Ephippus, and Platax (one species). The occurrence of Tripterodon orbis Playfair in the Indian region is not very defmite. Family DREPANIDAE One genus, Drepane, with two or three species (Smith &Heemstra, 1986); two species in the Indian region (Murthy, 1969). Both species are common in the trawl catches and support a seasonal fIShery at several places along the Indian coast. Family SCATOPHAGIDAE 'Two genera with probably four species (Nelson, 1984); one genus, Scatophagus, with two species in Indian waters (Talwar, 1984). Family CHAETODONTIDAE This family was recently revised by Burgess (1978). Ten genera with 114 species (Allen, 1980); three genera with 29 species in Indian waters (Talwar, 1984). Most species are associated with coral reefs, and are very colourful. The young of butterfly fIShes are popular aquarium fishes. Family POMACANTIllDAE Widespread and frequenting reefs, angel fishes are among the most beautifully adorned and graceful of all creatures. Family reviewed by Steene (1978) and Allen (1980). Seven genera with nearly 80 species (Smith & Heemstra, 1986); six genera with eight species in the Indian region. These fishes generally occur near coral reefs at depths of less than 20 m. Family PENT ACEROTIDAE Recently revised by Hardy (1983) who recognises twelve species in seven genera; Histiopterus typus Temminck &Schlegel reported by Talwar (1975) from Indian seas. Silas (1969) lists the genus Quinquarius (= Pentaceros) off the Kerala coast. These fishes are recorded from rather deep (to 600 m) water in all oceans. Family NANDIDAE This family comprises a fascinating group of relatively small fishes, most of which are well known to the tropic.al fish hobbyists. Seven genera with about ten species (Nelson, 1984); three genera with four species in Indian waters, reviewed by• Talwar & Jhingran (1991). Liem (1970) made an osteological study of Nandus; and Barlow et. al., (1968) reviewed the monotypic genus Badis. Family CIC~IDAE Cichlids form an important group of relatively large and often colourful aquarium fishes (Axelrod, 1973; Goldstein, 1973). Primarily freshwater fishes; 84 genera and 680 species (Nelson, 1984): only one genus, Etroplus, with three species in the Indian region. Further, Oreochromis mossambicus (peters) has been introduced in India for cultural purposes. The Tilapiine fishes have been revised by Trewavas (1983). Family POMACENTRIDAE Small fishes of no commercial importance except as aquarium pets. Twenty-five genera with about 300 species; ten genera with 56 species in Indian waters. Considerable morphological diversity exists in many of the genera. Allen (1975) has published a monograph on the biology and classification of the group of fishes of the genus Amphiprion. Jones & Kumaran (1980) discovered Abudelduf manikfani from the Minicoy Islands and also listed several new records of this group from Indian waters. The genus Dascyllus has been revised by Randall &Allen (1977). Family CIRRHITIDAE Hawkfishes are usually small and richly coloured fishes that live in rocky and coral habitats. Nine genera and 35 species (Smith &Heemstra, 1986); four genera with four species in Indian waters. Randall (1963) reviewed the family. Family CEPOI:.,IDAE Four genera with about 20 species (Smith &Heemstra, 1986); three gel'era in Indian waters, viz. Owstonia (one species), Acanthocephela (one species) and Cephola (one species). Talwar (1972) discovered the deep-water fish, Owstonia whiteheadi off the southwest coast of India Suborder MUGILOIDEI Family MUGILIDAE Circumglobal fishes of commercial importance. Thirteen genera containing about 70 species (Nelson, 1984); seven genera with 15 species in the Indian region (Talwar, 1984). Luther (1975) proposed a new genus Osteomugil for Mugil to accept the ~ew generic name for this mugilid. Subordez SPHYRIENOIDEI Family SPHYRAENIDAE One genus, Sphyraena, with 20 species; ten species in Indian waters. Indian Ocean species have been reviewed by Williams (1959) and de Sylva (1975). Talwar (1968) discovered the unique holotype of Sphyraena acutipinnis Day in the ~ollections of the ZSI. The barracudas are caught in sizeable quantities along the Indian coast and these have been reviewed by Talwar (1984). The large varieties are in good demand due to their delicate flesh. Subordez POLYNEMOIDEI Family POLYNEMIDAE Threadfins are used extensively as food in the tropics where they are usually taken by nets. Seven genera with about 35 species; three genera with 12 species in Indian waters (Talwar, 1984). Subordez LABROIDEI Family LABRIDAE This is the second largest family of marine fishes and the third largest perciform family. Most species very colourful, some with complex patterns. Wrasses are popular aquarium fishes. About 57 genera with 500 species (Nelson, 1984); 24 genera and 72 species in Indian waters (Day, 1889; Jones &. Kumaran, 1980; Talwar", in press). Family SCARIDAE This group of fishes is aptly named the parrotfishes, as they possess beak-like jaws and many of the species are gaudily coloured. Nine genera with 68 species; five genent and 25 species in Indian waters. The Indo-Pacific Sparisomatinae have been revised by Randall &Bruce (in press). Parrotfishes are abundant on coral reefs, along rocky shores, and in seagrass beds; often they are the largest component of the fish biomass. Suborder ZOARCOIDEI Family ZOARCIDAE Generally small, deep-living bottom fishes of polar and cold-temperate seas. About 40 genera and about 150 species; Silas (1969) lists a species of Lycodes from off the southwest coast of India and this report is perhaps the only record of a member of this family from Indian waters. Suborder TRACHINOIDEI Family OPISTOGNA THIDAE Three genera, with about 70 total species many of which lack scientific names (Smith &Heemstra, 1986); one genus Opistognathus, with three species in Indian waters (Day, 1889; Eibesfeldt &Kla\!",cwitz, 1961). Gnathyopopsrosbergi annulata Eibesfeldt &Klausewitz, 1961, described from the Andaman Sea, is referable to the genus Opistognathus. Family CONGROGADIDAE Ten genera with 17 species; only Helidesmus thomaseni (Nielsen, 1960) in Indian waters. Nielsen (1960) described Pholioides thomaseni from rock pools near Karachi (pakistan). Mohan (1969) relegated Tentaculus waltairiensis Rao &Dult, 1965, described from Waltair, to the synonymy of Pholioides thomaseni, and reported the species from the Gulf of Kutch. Recently Animal Resources ofIndia Talwar et. al .. (in press) recorded the species from Digha (West Bengal). Family CHIASMODONTIDAE Chiasmodontids are oceanic and mesopelagic or bathypelagic piscivorous fishes. Three genera with a total of eleven species; all three genera with three species in Indian waters. The most recent revisions are those of Norman (1929), Johnson (1969) and Johnson &Cohen (1974). Family CHAMPSODONTIDAE One genus, Champsodon. with about six species known from depths of 100 -400 m in the Red Sea and Indo-Pacific region; two species reported from Indian seas, viz. C. capensis Reg~and C. vorax Gunther (vide Alcock, 1899; Herre, 1941). Family URANOSCOPIDAE Stargazers are benthic predators. Eight genera and about 25 species; three genera in Indian seas, viz. Uranoscopus (three species), I chthyoscopus (one species) and the monotypic genus Pleuroscopus (listed by Silas, 1969). They appear to be uncommon and none is of commercial importance. Family TRICHONOTIDAE One genus, Trichonotus. with 3 or 4 species (Smith &Heemstra, 1986); two species in Indian waters, viz. T cyclograplus (Alcock) and T seligerus Bloch &Schneider. Family CREEDIIDAE An Indo-Pacific family of small cryptic fishes occurring on sand and gravel bottoms; rarely seen in life. Seven genera with 14 species; only Chalixodytes tauensis Schultz; 1943, reported (Jones &Kumaran; 1967) from Indian waters. Family PERCOPHIDAE Rather small fishes of deepish water (100 600 m). Twelve genera with about ~5 species; two genera with two species in Indian water. Chrionema chlorotaenia (Mackay, 1971) was reported from Indian waters (as C. chryseres) by Talwar (1974). The various species of Bembrops listed from Indian waters are all referable to B. platyrhynchus (Alcock) (Iwamoto &Staiger, 1976; Nelson, 1978). Family MUGILOIDIDAE Four genera with about 60 species; only the genus Parapercis with six species, in Indian waters. Most species are too small to be iInportant as food-fishes or to be caught with hook and line. . Suborder BLENNIOIDEI Family TRIPTERYGIIDAE Small, cryptically coloured be'1thic fishes. About 16 genera and probably in excess of 130 species (smith &Heemstra, 1986); three genera in India waters, viz. Helcogramma (two species). Triplerygion (three/species) and Norfokia (one species) (Herre, 1944; Mohan, 1968, 1971; Talwar &Sen, 1971; Jones &Kumaran, 1980). The genus fJelcogramma was revised by Hansen (1986). Family CLINIDAE Twenty genera and about 80 species; only Springeratus xanthosoma (Bleeker) in the Indian region (vide Springer, 1971; Mohan, 1974).

Family BLENNIIDAE Benthic fishes in a wide variety of shallow inhabits, ranging from fresh and brackish water to coral reefs; distributed worldwide in temperate and tropical waters. Fifty-three genera with about 301 species (Nelson, 1984); 21 genera with 56 species in Indian waters. Springer (1968) gives a listing of most of the nominal genera and a detailed osteological description of Entomacrodus. Springer (1971) revised the Indo-Pacific genus Escenius, and later (Springer, 1972) characterised the tribe Omobranchii and revised all genera of this tribe except the genus Omobranchus. Springer &Gomon (1975) revised the genus Omobranchus and presented a list of the nominal taxa of this genus with their current identification. The blennids of the Godavari estuary were studied by Visweswara Rao (1974) wherein he described a new species, Cruantus smithi, which has now (Talwar &Jhingran, 1991) been relegated to the synonymy of Omobranchusferox (Herre, 1927). The genus Cirripectes has been revised by Williams (1988). Suborder SCHINDLERIOIDEI Family SCHINDLERIIDAE Small neotentic fishes that show no adult characteristics. One genus, Schindleria, with two species; both in Indian waters, reported from the Laccadive Sea (Jones &Kumaran, 1964, 1980). Suborder AMrv10DYTOIDEI Family AMMODYTIDAE These curious fishes occur in sandy areas of most seas. Three genera with about 12 species (Nelson, 1984); only Bleekeria kallolepis Gunther in Indian waters. Suborder CALLIONY MOl DEI Family CALLIONYMIDAE Nine genera with a total of about 125 species, the Indo-Pacific species revised by Fricke (1983); three genera and 12 species in Indian waters, viz ..monotypic Eleutherochir, Callionymus (nine species) and Synchiropus (revised by Fricke, 1981; two species). Callionymus jonesii Mohan, 1970, described from the Palk Bay, was relegated to the synonymy of C. hindsi Richardson; and Pogonymus goslinei Rao, 1975, described from the ~nnore estuary (Madras), to the synonymy of Eleutherochir opercuiaris (Valenciennes) by Fricke (1983). Fricke (1981) discovered Callionymus octostigmatus from the Andaman Sea and later (Fricke, 1983) described Callionymus io from off Burma based on the R.I.M.Slnvestigator material. These fishes are not of any commercial importance. Suborder GOBIOIDEI Falnily GOBIIDAE Gobiidae, probably the most speciose of all living fish families, contains the \vorld' s smallest fishes (and vertebrates). Worldwide with about 220 genera and 1600 species (Smith & Heemstra, 1986); 46 genera with 92 species in the Indian region (Koumans, 1941, 1953; Talwar &Jhingran, 1991). Miller (1973) reformalised the gobioid classification on osteological characters, in a system intended to reflect phylogeny. House &Winterbottom '(1979) relegated the genus Konmaniasis Rao, 1968, to the synonymy of Bathygobius. Inger (1958) reviewed the genus Brachygobius; and Larson and Miller (1986) reviewed the genus silhouetta. Rao (1970, 1971) discovered Chiramenu jluvialilis and Silhouetta indicus from the Godabvari estuary. Akihito & Meguro (1975) reviewed the genus Glossogobius. Lachner &Mc Kinney (1978) revised the genus Gobiopsis and relegated Barbatogobius asanai Koumans, 1941, to its synonymy. Pezold &Larson (1986) gave the generic Animal Resources ofIndia definition for Oxyurichthys. Talwar &Jhingran (1991) reviewed the inland gobioid fauna of the Indian region. Family ELECTRIDIDAE Worldwide with some 40 genera and about 150 species; 14 genera with 25 species in Indian region. The status of Andameleotris roai Herre, 1939, is uncertain according to Koumans (1941). Akihito (1967) reviewed the genus Eleotris; Akihito &Meguro (1974) the genera Ophieieotris and Ophioeara and Lachner &Karnella (1980) the genus Eviota. Rao (1971) discovered Incara multisquamatus from the Godavari estuary. Talwar & Jhingran (1991) relegated Waitea buchanani Rao, 1972, described from the Godavari estuary, to the synonymy of Mahidolia mystacina (Valenniciennes). Family GOBIOIDIDAE Eight genera with about 19 species; four genera with eight species in the Indian region (Koumans, 1941; Talwar &Jhingran 1991). Family TRYPAUCHENIDAE Five genera with ten species; four genera with four species in the Indian region (Koumans, 1941). Family KRAEMERIIDAE Four genera with ten species (Nelson, 1984); two genera with two species in the Indian region (Menon &Talwar, 1972; Jones &Kumaran, 1980). Suborder KURTOIDEI Family KURTIDAE This family contains a single genus with t\VO species; Kurtus indieus Bloch is caught all along the east coast of India and sporadically enters estuaries. Tominaga (1968) gives additional features for this group of fishes. Suborder ACANTHUROIDEI Family ACANTHURIDAE Nine genera and 57 species; five genera in Indian waters (Talwar, 1984). The largest genus, Acanthurus, is represented by five species in the Atlantic; all remaining acanthurines are Indo¬Pacific in distribution. Randall (1955) analysed the genera of surgeon fishes. The following genera (with the number of species in Indian Seas) are : Acanthurus (revised by Randall, 1956; 14 species), Ctenoehaetus (revised by Randall, 1955; two species), monotypic genus Paraeanthurus. Naso (six species) and Zebrasoma (two species). Ths surgeonfishes are not of great commercial value, though in insular and coastal regions with coral reefs they may be locally important. Family ZANCLIDAE A single species of the tropical Indo-Pacific. Zanelus eaneseens (Linnaeus) is a very attractive fish and is fairly common in coral reef areas of the Indian region. Family SIGNIDAE Two genera with 27 species; both genera with 14 species in Indian Seas. Lo magnifucus Burgess is restricted to the Andaman Sea in the Indian region. Suborder SCOMBRIODEI This suborder includes species that are probably the world's fastest swimming fish. Sailfish. Pisces 615 swordfish and the bluefin tuna have had speeds between 60 and 100 km/hr attributed to them. Family GEMPYLIDAE Large, swift predators found in all oceans, usually in depths of 200-500 m, but often migrating to the surface at night. Most species attain more than 1 m. Fifteen genera and 16 species; seven genera in Indian Seas, viz., monotypic Gempylus. monotypic Lepidocybium. Neoepinnula (one species), Promethichthys (one species), Rexea (one species), monotypic Ruvettus and the monotypic Thyristoides (Jones, 1960; Narayana Rao, 1965; Talwar & Sathiarajan, 1974; Silas & Regunathan, 1975; Talwar, 1975, 1984). The genus Lepidocybium which has many scombrid characters, was placed in Gempylidae by Parin & Bekker (1973). there appears to be no special fishery for any of the species in Indian waters. Family TRICHIURIDAE Voracious predators distributed in all tropical and temperate seas. They generally inhabit deeper waters over the continental shelf and the slope, but several species are common in shallow coastal waters. Nine genera with about 17 species (Nelson, 1984); five genera in Indian waters, viz. Benthodesmus (one species), Lepidopus (reviewed by Parin &Mikhailin, 1982; one species) Eupleurogrammus (two species), Lepturacanthus (two species) and Trichuirus (three species). These fishes have been adequately studied by Tucker (1965), Silas &James (1960), James (1967), Gupta (1966), Dutt & Thankam (1966), Wheeler (1971), Silas & Rajagopalan (1975), Talwar (1984) and Fischer &Bianchi (1984). Family SCOMBRIDAE Scombrids are swift, epipelagic predators; some species occur in coastal waters, others far offshore. Fifteen genera and 48 species, recently reviewed by Collette &Nauen (1983); eleven genera with 23 species in Indian Seas, reviewed by Talwar (1984). Many species form large schools and most are of great importance as food-fishes. Family XIPHIIDAE One genus with only one species, found in open water of all oceans. Xiphias gladius Linnaeus usually occurs in deep water beyond the limit of the continental shelf. The flesh of the swordfish is greatly esteemed. Family ISTIOPHORIDAE These wide-ranging pelagic fishes are found in all oceans. Three genera with a total of nine species; all three genera in Indian waters, viz. I stiophorus (revised by Morrow & Harbo, 1969; one species), Makaira (reviewed by Nakamura et. al., 1968 three species) and Tetrapterns (reviewed by Nakamura et al., 1968, two species}. All billfishes are of commercial value and provide excellent food. Suborder STROMATEOIDEI The stromateoid fishes, generally referred to as butterfishes and their relatives, are a diverse group occurring worldwide in coastal and oceanic waters of tropical and temperate regions. Family CENTROLOPHIDAE Seven genera ~ith about 22 species, keyed by Haedrich & Hom (1972); only one genus, Psenopsis (revised by Haedrich, 1967; two species) in Indian Seas. Occur in rather deep water (between 250 and 300 m), forming small schools. Family NOMEIDAE Three genera with about 15 species; two genera in Indian waters, viz. Cubiceps (revised by Animal Resources ofIndia Butler, 1979; one species) and Psenes (reviewed by Ahlstrom, Butler &Sumida, 1976; one species). The specific identity of Cubiceps squamiceps (Lloyd) has been discussed by Talwar (1974). Family ARIOMMA TIDAE One genus, Ariomma, with eight species, revi3ed by Hom (1972); Ariomma indica (Day) only in Indian waters. Family STROMA TEIDAE Three genera with about 15 species; only Pampus (with two species) is found in Indian Seas, reviewed by Pati (1983). The pomfrets are abundant in the coastal waters of the Indian region and are amongst the best of the tablefishes. Suborder ANABANTOIDEI These fishes are freshwater and indigenous to Africa and southern A~ia. A comparative classic account of the osteology and phylogeny of these fishes is given by Liem (1963). Most anabantids are good aquarium material. Nearly all the species are useful in their native haunts as destroyers of mosquito larvae. Family ANABANTIDAE Three genera recognised; only one, Anabas, with two species in the Indian region (Rao, 1968). Both species are of considerable fisheries interest. Family BELONTIIDAE This is the largest and most diverse family of anabantoids, with eleven genera and more than 30 species; seven genera in Indian waters, viz. Belontia (one species endemic to Sri Lanka), monotypic Ctenops (reviewed by Tilak, 1976), Macropodus (reviewed by Regan, 1909; one species), monotypic M alpulutta (endemic to Sri Lanka), CoUsa (four species), monotypic Parasphaerichlhys (endemic to Burma) and Trichogaster (one species introduced in Sri Lanka). The fishes of this family are known for their beauty and many of them have been kept as pets in the aquaria. Betta splendens Regan, an exotic fish, is common' in aquaria in India. Trichogaster trichopterus (pallas) is erroneously listed by Innes (1935) froln India. Family HELOSTOMATIDAE This family, endemic to south-east Asia, comprises a single species. Helo,oma temminldi Cuvier, the kissing goramy, was introduced in Sri Lanka, and is a valuable food fish. Family OSPHRONEMIDAE Comprises of a single species. Although its suprabranchial organ is especially elaborate, it should not be placed in a monotypic family (Roberts,'1989). Osphronemus goramy Lacepede, tho giant goramy, was introduced into India and Sri Lanka, and is an important species in freshwater aquaculture. Suborder CHANNOIDEI Family CHANNIDAE Two genera with about 25 species (Roberts, 1989); one, genus, Channa, with eight species in the Indian region (Reddy, 1978). These fishes are a very conspicuous element of the fish life In almost every part of India. Pisces 617 Suborder MASTACEMBELOIDEI Family' MAST ACEMBELIDAE Four genera with 33 species (Travers, 1984); two genera with nine species in the Indian region, recently reviewed by Talwar &Jhingran (1991). Sufi (19~6), followed by Roberts (1980, 1986) and Travers (1984), revised the genera Mastacembelus and Macrognathus. Talwar &Jhingran (1991) relegated Macrognathus jammensis Malhotra & Singh, 1975, to the synonymy of M. aral (Bloch &Schneider). Family CHAUDHURIIDAE Travers (1984) considered the two species of Pillaia and Garo, placed in their own family, Pillaiidae, congeneric with Chaudhuria caudata Annandale, the type-species of the genus Chaudhuria. Roberts (1980) extended the distribution of C. caudata to Thailand. OIder PLEURONECTIFORMES This is a very distinctive group. Most flatfishes occur in depths of 10 to 200 m, a few live in deeper water, and some are found close inshore, even in estuaries. Many species are highly valued as food-fishes and are taken in considerable quantities by trawlers. Six families are currently recognised (Nelson, 1984); all six are represented in the Indian region. Family PSETIODIDAE Psettodids are considered Lhe most primitive of the flatfishes, one genus, Psettodes, with three species; only one species in the Indian region. P seltodes erumei (Schneider) lives on muddy and sandy bottoms of the COntinental shelf down to about.100-m. It forms an important fishery at Bombay and Madras. Family CITHARIDAE Four genera and five species; one genus, Brachypleura with one species, B. novae -zeelandiae Gunther in Indian seas. Family BOTHIDAE Bothids comprise 37 genera with about 212 species (Nelson, 1984); twelve genera with 38 species in Indian seas. They are found in all tropical and temperate seas, and several species are of commercial importance. The fishes of this family have been reviewed by Norman (1927). Subsequent to this important work, Talwar (1975) reported Arnoglossus arabicus Norman from Indian waters and also extended the range of distribution of Cephalopsettcl ventrocellatus •Dutt &Rao, 1965, froln the Bay of Bengal to the Arabian Sea. Further, Talwar (op. cit.) relegated Lioglossina punctata Abraham, 1969, described form Kerala, to the synonymy of Cephalopsetta ventrocellatus Dutt &Rao. The genus Chascanopsetta has recently been revised by Amoka &Yamamoto (1984). Family PLEURONECTIDAE Pleuronectids comprise some 45 genera and about 100 species; four genera in Indian Seas, viz. Marleyella (one species), Poecilopsetta (two species), Samaris (one species) and Samaricus (two species). Family CYNOGLOSSIDAE Tonguefishes are found in warm waters of all oceans. Most species occur in shallow water or estuaries. A recent revision of the genus Cynoglossus (Menon, 1977) recognises three genera in this family with about 103 species; all three genera in Indian waters with 21 species. The genus Paraplagusia was reviewed by Menon (1980). Most species of Symphurus are found on the continental slopes (200 -1000 m) and the genus is in dire need of revision. Cynoglossus macrostomus Norman is the object of an important fishery on the south-west coast of India. Family SOLEIDAE Soles arc benthic, neritic fishes occurring in all oceans. Thirtyone genera and 120 species; nine genera with 22 species in Indian waters (Norman, 1928; Talwar &Chakrapani, 1966; Menon &, Joglekar, 1983; Tal war , 1984). Some species are of considerable economic importance in the Indian region. The taxonomy of this family needs revision.

The Tetraodontiformes (also known as the Plectognathi) are a morphologically diverse and highly specialised group of teleosts. Tyler (1980) has produced a profusely illustrated and comprehensive work on the osteology and higher classification of the tetradontiforms. This classification agrees fairly well with the cladistic c~assification proposed by Winterbottom (1974) based on myology of 46 species. Eight families with approximately 92 genera and 330 extant species.

Family TRIACANTHODIDAE

Moderate-sized fishes (less than 25 cm) found near the bottom in depths of 46-600 m or greater. Eleven genera with 20 species; only five genera with six species in Indian waters, viz. Halimochirurgus (one species), Macrorhamphosodes (one species), Mephisto (one species), Triacanthodes (one species) and the monotypic genus Tydemania. The monotypic genus Mephisto, established by Tyler (1966), was known from two specimens (one from off Somalika and the other from the Andaman Sea). Talwar (1975) collected a specimen of this rare fish from off the Kerala coast at a depth of 300 m. Tyler (1966) recorded Tydemania navigatoris Weber in the Andaman Sea, and Talwar (1975) reported Macrorhamphosodes platycheilus Fowler for the fust time from Indian seas.

Family TRIACANTHIDAE

Tripodfishes are benthic, occurring usually on flat, sandy or weed covered bottoms. Four genem with eight species; three genera in Indian seas, viz. monotypic genera Pseudotriacanthus and Trixiphichthys, and the genus l'riacanthus with three species. Regan (1903) discovered T. indicus from India, a species now considered (De Beaufort &Briggs, 1962) a subspecies of brevirostris.

Family BALISTIDAE

Most species occur on coral reefs where these fishes often dart for shelter into crevices. Recent works on the Balistidae are Tyler (1981), dealing with osteology, generic and higher level classification. Eleven genera with about 40 species; ten genera with 14 species in Indian waters. Randall &Klausewitz (1973) discovered MeJichthys indicus from the Andaman Sea.

Family MONOCANTHIDAE

These fishes are primarily benthic, dwelling around coral and rocky reefs or on sand and mud bottoms and seagrass beds. Only large individuals of some filefish species are eaten, but many are collected as a trash fish in commercial bottom trawls. About 31 genera with about 95 species (Nelson, 1984); eight genera with 12 spe~ies in the Indian region. Pseudalutarius nasicornis (Temminck &Schegel) was listed from India for the first time by Silas (1969); Oxymonacanthus longirostris (Bloch &Schneider) was also reported from Indian waters by Talwar (1974). "Balistes" ellioti Day, 1889, based on Elliot's figure, is an indeterminate species. Jones &Kumaran (1980) described Rhineeanlhus ree/angulus (Schneider) from the Laccadive Sea, but this appears to be R. echarpe (Lacepcde). Pisces 619

Family OSTRACIIDAE

Slow benthic tropical and subtropical fishes. Fourteen genera with about 37 species; four genera with seven species in Indian waters. Not eaten in India; many species are reported to have toxic flesh. Kuthalingam et. al., (1971) recorded Tetrosomus contcatenatus (Bloch) for the fIrSt time from India. Family lRIODONTIDAE A single species, Triodon macropteTllS Lesson in tropical Indo-Pacific down to 300 m. Day (1878, 1889) reported this species (as T bursarius) from the seas of India, but this species is presently not represented in Zoological Survey of India collections.

Family TERRAODONTIDAE

Tetraodontids are circum global in tropical and temperate waters; most species are marine, but several enter estuaries and some live only in freshwater. The taxonomy of this family is in dire need of revision, as 'several of the genera are poorly defined and many of the species are difficult to distinguish. Sixteen genera with about 118 species; nine genera in Indian waters, viz. monotYJ>ic genus Amblyrhynchotes, Arothron (seven species), Canthigaster (revised by Allen &Randall, 1977; two species), Chelonodon (two species), Lagocephalus (four species), Sphoeroides (a deep¬water species, S. pachygaster (= Liosaccus cutaneus) reported by Talwar, 1980), Tetraodon (revised by Dekkers, 1975; two species), Torquigener (one species) and the monotypic genus Xenopterus. Talwar &Jbingran (1991) reviewed the inland tetraodontids of the Indian region.

Family DIODONTIDAE

Adults inhabit inshore waters while the young are pelagic ..reputed to be poisonous, but some species safely eaten in Pacific. About nine genera with a total of about 19 species; six species in four genera in the Indian Seas, viz. monotypic genus Chilomycterus, Cyclichlhys (one species), Diodon (revised by Leis, 1978; three species) and the monotypic genus, Lophodiodon reported from the Laccadives by Jones & Kumaran (1980). Family MOLIDAE

Sunfishes are found in the open ocean, often drifting at the surface as if basking in the sun. Three mono typic genera are generally recognised; two genera in the Indian region, viz. Ranzania and Mola.

Current Studies

As a result of the study of the various collections of fishes made from different regions of India, substantial progress in our knowledge of the fish fauna has been achieved. The chief advance made by these reports on the fish fauna is in respect of the problems of Indian zoogeography, a field in which several new ideas have been developing. Despite the poor fossil record for fishes and difficulty of working with the often fragmentary fossils, the last decade has seen a substantial contribution from palaeontology towards the solution of certain zoogeographical problems. In that period there has been a great deal of active research into the phylogeny of fishes as well as in the field of continental drift or plate tectonics. The most spectacular advances have been made, with the result that the zoogeography have a scientific understanding of the past land masses against which to review the present distribution of fishes.

The Survey in the forthcoming years has programmed to do intensive mopping-up surveys of the entire country for its fish life by resorting to state-wise exploration and analysis. By 2000 AD, survey of the entire country is likely to be completed. The continental shelf of India has remained virtually a mare incognitum as regards the species diversity. Such a programme of ,,'ork naturally depends on suitable trawlers for exploratory work.

Conservation of Fish Fauna of India

There has been a severe decline in the freshwater fish fauna of India in general and food and game fishes in particular. This decline is mainly due to indiscriminate fishing, dynamiting of rivers, construction of dams across rivers, over utilization of water, cutting down of forest trees, mismanaged farm lands. and erosion, pollution by factory chemicals, competition from introduced species, etc.

Dams and weirs at higher reaches of the tributaries of the major rivers of India have affected the world famous game fishes, the Mahseers of India. The spawning runs of Mahseers (Tor spp and Neolissochilus hexagonolepis (McClelland» have been affected. Mahseers which used to grow' to a size of 150 cm and a weight of 25 -30 kg in earlier days, have depleted and now catches more than 5 kg size are rare. 'Dams and increased large-scale extraction of gravel stones (spawning niche of mahseer), silting of lakes and reservoirs are the causes or threats for the decline (Pathani, 1979). Menon (1988) compiled a list of endangered, threatened and rare freshwater fishes of India. These are : (a) Endangered Fishes Enobarbichthys maculatus (Day) Cyprinion semiplotus (McClelland) Raiamas bola (Hamilton -Buchanan) Tor chelynoides (McClelland) (P) Threatened Fishes

Notopterus chitala (Hamilton -Buchanan) Neolissochilus hexagono/epis (McClelland) Labeo fimbriatus (Bloch) Labeo kontius (Jerdon) Lobeo potail (Sykes) Torkhudree(Syke~ Tor tor (Hamilton -Buchanan) Tor putitora (Hamilton -Buchanan) Puntius carnaticus (Jerdon) Puntius jerdoni (Day) Gonoproktopterus curmuca (Hamilton -Buchanan) Cirrhinus cirrhosus (Bloch) Schizothorax richardsonii (Gray) Schizothoraichlhys progastus (McClelland) Silonia childreni Sykes Pangasius pangasius (Hamilton -Buchanan) Bagarius bagarius (Hamilton -Buchanan) To this list we may add several more names and these have been indicated by Talwar &Jhingran (1991). In view of the high percentage of fishes found in freshwater in India and man's increasing modification of this environment, it is vital that research is drastically increased on the basic systematics of freshwater fishes while this is still possible. Pisces 621 TABLE 1 Numerical Analysis of Genera/Species of Indian Region Collated with World's Fish Fauna OrderlF amily Indian Region World Genera Species Genera Species Order Chimaeriformes Family Chimaeridae 1 1 2 20 Rhinochimaeridae 3 3 3 10 Order Hexanchiformes Family Hexanchidae 1 1 3 4 Order Squaliformes Family Echinorhinidae 1 1 1 2 Squalidae 4 4 17 67 Order Orectolobiformes Family Rhiniodontidae 1 1 1 1 Hemiscyllidae 1 4 2 11 S tegostomatidae 1 1 1 1 Ginglymostomatidae 1 1 2 3 Order Lamniformes Family Odontaspididae 1 2 2 4 Pseudocarchariidae 1 1 1 1 Alopiidae 1 2 1 3 Lamnidae 1 ,.,. 1 3 5 Order Carcharhiniformes Family Scyliorhinidae 4 6 15 89 Proscyllidae 1 1 4 6 Triakidae 2 2 9 34 Hcmigaleidae 3 3 4 5 Carcharhinidae 10 26 12 46 Sphymidae 2 4 2 9 Order Pris tiformes Family Pristidae 2 4 2 7 Order Torpediniformes Family Torpedinidae 1 4 1 14 Narkidae 3 5 5 10 Narcinidae 2 4 4 15 Order Rajiformes Family Rajidae 3 5 9 200 Rhinobatidae 4 10 9 52 Order Myliobatiformes Family Myliobatidae 3 5 5 27 Mobulidae 2 3 2 10 Dasyatidae 7 26 10 89 OrderlFamily Indian Region World Genera Species Genera Species

Orderl Famil, Indian Region World Genera Species Genera Species

Orderl Family Indian Region World Genera Species Genera Species

Orderl Family Indian Region World Gene/a Species Genera Species

OrderlFamily Indian Region World Genera Species Genera Species O,de,IFamily Indian Region World Genera Species Genera Species OrderlFamily Indian •Region World Genera Species Genera Species

Expertise India

In ZSI

P. K. Talwar, Dehradun G. M. Yazdani, Pune K. V. Rama Roa, Hyderabad S. Chakrapani, Madras T. Venkataswarlu, Berbampur A. Husain, Dehradun T. K. Sen, Calcutta T. K. Chatterjee, Digha H. S. Mehta. Solan N. Sen (Miss), Shillong

Elsewhere

N. C. Datta, Dept. of Zoology, Calcutta University, Calcutta. Freshwater fishes P. S. B. R. James, Centtal Marine Fisheries Research Institute. Cochin, Marine fishes M. S. Johal. Dept of Zoology. Punjab University. Chandigarh. Freshwater fishes K. C. Jayaram, Zoological Survey of India, Southern Regional Station, Madras, Freshwater Fishes. M. Kumaran. Central Marine Fisheries Research Sub-Station, Kozhikode, Marine fIShes G. Luther, Central Marine Fisheries Research Sub-Station, Waltair, Mugilidae, Marine Fishes. R. S. Lal Mohan, Central Marine Fisheries Research Sub-Station, Kozhikode. Marine fIShes A. G. K. Menon. Zoological Survey of India, Southern Regional Station. Madras, Freshwater Fishes. V. Rarnaiyan. Centre of Advances Studies in Marine Biology, Porto Novo, Clupeoid fIShes K. Srinivasa, Rao. Dept of Zoology, Andhra University, Waltair, Marine fishes B. V. D. N. R. Seshagiri Rao, College, Bhimavaram, (A.P.), Clupeoid fishes D. Sudarsan. Fishery Survey of India, Bombay, Marine fishes K. K. Tandon, Dept of Zoology, Chandigarh, Freshwater fIShes

Abroad

There are numerous i.chthyologists working on the taxonomy of fishes (both freshwater and marine) of the' Indo-West Pacific region and the Oriental region which have a bearing on the Indian ichthyofauna. It would rather unwieldy to list them out, but the names of these distinguished ichthyologists (with their field of specialization) could easily be retrieved from the recent numbers of the 'Newsletter of Systematic Ichthyology' issued by the Department of Ichthyology, California Academy of Sciences.

Selected References

Day, F. 1889. The Fauna of British India. including Ceylon and Burma. Fishes. Vols'I and n.

Taylor and Francis, London. Jayaram,K. C. 1981. Freshwater Fishes oflndia. A Handbook, Zoological Survey of India. Jones, S. & Kumaran, M. 1980. Fishes of the Laccadive Archipelago. Nature Conservation and Aquatic Sciences, Trivandrum. 760 pp. Menon. A. K. G. 1978. The Fauna of India and the adjacent countries. Pisces, 4 : (1), ZSI, Calcutta, x + 259 pp. Nelson, I. S. 1984. Fishes of the World. 2nd ed. John Wiley &Sons, New York. 523 pp.

Talwar. P. K. & Kacker. R. K. 1984. Commercial.Sea fishes of India. Handbook. Zoological Survey of India. Lii + 997 pp.

Talwar, P. K. &Jhingran, A. G. 1991. Inland Fishes ofIndia and adjacent countries. Oxford &. IBH Publishing House, New Delhi. Vols I and II. Tilak, R. 1987. The Fauna ofIndia and lhe adjacent-countries. Pisces: Schizothoracinae. ZSI, Calcutta, 215 pp.