Keeladi/ Keezhadi
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Historical legacy
A backgrounder
Adrija Roychowdhury, June 24, 2023: The Indian Express
KEELADI IN THE HISTORY OF EXCAVATIONS IN INDIA
The story of Keeladi begins sometime in 2013 when Ramakrishna was posted at the ASI’s excavation branch in Bangalore. He says that since 1965 the ASI had not conducted an excavation of any major habitation site in the south. Thereafter, he concluded that he must make an effort to fill up this long gap. Consequently, he and his small team of three or four people decided to survey the Vaigai river basin, a distance of 270 kilometres, on foot over the course of a year to identify one site that had the potential to throw up evidence of historic habitation.
“We know that the first paleolithic stone tools in India were found in 1863 near Madras itself at a village known as Pallavaram,” says Ramakrishna. “So we know for sure that this region has been continuously inhabited since prehistoric times. But no proper study of the sequence of cultures in Tamil Nadu has been carried out.”
But prehistoric, or in other words that period of history when mankind had not yet left behind written records, was not what Ramakrishna was interested in finding. His objective was to find clues to the beginnings of urbanisation and literate culture in Tamil Nadu. “We know that the first urbanisation in India happened during the Harappan civilisation. After the disintegration of the Harappans, they spread all over India and I am sure they came to the south also,” says Ramakrishna. It is unfortunate, he believes, that this aspect of urban development in the south has not been studied.
Until very recently, the period of second urbanisation in India is known to have taken place between 600 to 500 BCE and concentrated in the middle of the Gangetic plains. It used to be argued that South India entered this historical phase much later in the third century BCE and that too with the intervention of the Mauryan king Ashoka who was known to have introduced writing in the region.
This understanding of Indian history, argues Ramakrishna, was because most archaeological excavations in India were concentrated in the north. “Majority of excavation branches of the ASI have been concentrated in the north. It was only recently in 2001 that the first ASI excavation branch came up in the south in Bangalore,” Ramakrishna explains. Until then excavations in the south were carried out by the ASI circles, state governments, and college archaeology departments, which he believes could not be carried out at the same scale as what the central government could do.
Further, he suggests that the priority of the ASI excavation branches was to find Indus Valley sites.
The Partition of India had resulted in the majority of Indus Valley sites going to Pakistan, including both Harappa and Mohenjo-daro. Archaeologist and Historian Nayanjot Lahiri explains that “a lot of us grew up with this idea that we have lost Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, even though we had retained half of the material found from these sites… Consequently soon after Independence, there was an urgency to finding Harappan sites in India, which was very much state driven.”
The other major concern of archaeological study in India soon after Independence though was to fill up the gaps in understanding of ancient history of India, including that in southern India. In her book, Monuments Matter: India’s Archaeological Heritage since Independence (2017), Lahiri writes that as far as South India was concerned it was felt that the gap in historical understanding of the region was a lot larger.
Consequently, one of the earliest excavations in South India following Independence was carried out at Arikamedu near Pondicherry by Sir Mortimer Wheeler between 1947-50. It threw up evidence of pottery, Roman lamps, stone beads and glass, and it was concluded that the site was an ancient Greek port that traded with Rome between the first century BCE and first century CE. A subsequent excavation carried out at the site much later between 1989-92 now dates the findings to second century BCE and eighth century CE.
In the subsequent years though, archaeological excavations in southern India, more specifically in Tamil Nadu, were far lesser in comparison to the north, although not completely absent. Kaveripoompattinam in Nagapattinam district, which is known to have been a major port city of the early Chola kings, was excavated in 1962-63. Alagankulam in Ramanathapuram district was excavated in 1984-86 and revealed hundreds of potsherds of the Mediterranean region dating to the first century BCE along with Roman coins which suggest that it was a major port city. More recently, Adichinallur in Thoothukudi district, which was the capital of the early Pandyan kingdom, was excavated in 2004-05.
Ramakrishna would argue that none of these sites were properly studied, nor were they providing evidence of a major habitation site. “Keeladi is the first major habitation site that is being studied in a scientific manner,” he concludes.
Lahiri, however, argues that it would be wrong to suggest that before Keeladi there was no evidence of an early urban culture in South India. She emphasises upon the findings of two other archaeological sites, Porunthal and Kodumanal, which were excavated before Keeladi, from 2009 onwards by archaeologist K Rajan and threw up enough evidence to suggest that the beginnings of urban development and writing in Tamil Nadu happened before the intervention of the Mauryas in South India. In her book she describes in great detail the findings from these two sites and suggests it to be a “major landmark” in understanding the archaeological evidence for the advent of writing in the Indian subcontinent.
“We must give K Rajan the credit for this finding,” says Lahiri. “His work at Kodumanal clearly showed that much was happening in South India in the fifth and sixth centuries BCE. He found hundreds of sherds with the Brahmi script and got them dated. It was an urban site and a commercial centre.”
Lahiri goes on to suggest that much of the excitement at Keeladi was because of it being a Sangam era site. “Sangam culture is very much a part of the living cultural tradition of South India. It’s like the Ramayana and Mahabharata,” she says. “So for instance if an excavation takes place in Hastinapur, Sonepat, Purana Quila — which are part of the epics — it immediately catches the imagination of people because they have read about them. It is similar for the Sangam sites in the south.”
KEELADI AND THE FINDING OF SANGAM’S MATERIAL EVIDENCE
When Ramakrishna zeroed down on Keeladi for excavation among the 293 sites he had originally identified, his reasoning was simple: “Keeladi was very close to Madurai”.
“Madurai is a famous historic centre in Tamil Nadu, but no one knows how old Madurai is,” he says. The earliest known inscription inside the city is in the Meenakshi Temple and can be dated to around the ninth century CE. “Does that mean that there was no city here before that?” asks Ramakrishna.
He points out that the Sangam literature that was first conceived more than 2,500 years ago clearly mentions Madurai. Moreover, over 24 Jain caves older than 2,300 years that are located in and around the city also carry inscriptions suggesting the name of Madurai. “This means that the city existed here for much longer,” Ramakrishna says.
Given the fact that Madurai at present is a living and thriving urban centre, it was impossible to dig it up for the sake of finding evidence of its long lost antiquity. The next best thing to do was to excavate a site located nearby. Keeladi was the best option available. “The location of Madurai was key to deciding on Keeladi,” says Ramakrishna.
The significance of the Sangam corpus on Tamil consciousness can hardly be underestimated. It is the earliest literary evidence from South India. The poems and songs in the corpus are known to have been the product of three sangams or literary gatherings held in the ancient Tamil region. Madurai has a pivotal place in the Sangam literary scene. Historian Upinder Singh in her book, ‘A history of ancient and early medieval India: From Stone Age to the 12th century’ (2008) notes that “a tradition recorded in post-7th century texts speaks of three Sangams or literary gatherings in ancient times.” The first is said to have been held in Madurai for more than 4,440 years. The second gathering was known to have been held in Kapatapuram for 3,700 years, while the third one once again took place in Madurai for 1,850 years.
“The Sangam corpus spoke in detail about the Tamil way of life,” says Madurai based Tamil writer A. Muthukrishnan. “It also talks about the ecology, the flora and fauna, the rivers, the climate and much more about this region,” he explains. Historians have for long debated the exact dates of the Sangams, but most agree that they were composed sometime between third century BCE and third century CE. Muthukrishnan mentions that for long the Sangam corpus was ridiculed to be no more than fictional texts. “The problem was that we never had any material evidence to show that life existed here during that time,” he says. “But in the last 10 years, archaeological excavations at Keeladi have given us proof of all that the Sangam texts are talking about.”
The resonance of Sangam texts is perhaps the most crucial aspect of the findings at Keeladi. It is worth noting the conscious effort in narrating the story of the artifacts in close association with the Sangam texts. Verses from the Sangam texts are put up on display upon the walls of the newly constructed museum. Almost every finding displayed is accompanied by a short description note that carries the serial number of the poem in the Sangam corpus that gives reference to it.
“For instance, there are many songs in the Sangam texts that describe the making of iron,” says Ajay Kumar, archaeological officer in charge of Keeladi. He explains that the iron smelting tools found in Keeladi corroborate the same process as mentioned in the texts.
Kumar points out another poem ‘kalam sei kovey’, in the text ‘Purananuru’ that talks about burial traditions. “This poem suggests that one must make an urn wide enough for two people to be buried in it together,” says Kumar, adding that they did discover one urn from the site that carried the remains of two people.
Other discoveries from the site such as carnelian beads, playing dice, iron daggers, iron sickle among several others are said to have references in the Sangam texts as well. Names such as ‘Aadhan’ found in the potsherds at Keeladi also find mention in the Sangam corpus.
The Sangam connection soon sparked public interest of the kind never seen before. Muthukrishnan observes that after Keeladi more people in Tamil Nadu have suddenly started revisiting the Sangam texts and reading them with unprecedented enthusiasm.
Both Muthukrishnan and Santhalingam are aware that the resonance of Sangam poetry alone is not responsible for the heightened interest in Keeladi. “Keeladi is the first excavation in India to happen under a camera,” says Muthukrishnan. Mobile photography and social media posts and discussions have played a critical role in creating the buzz around Keeladi.
Then there was also the ego battle with the central government that has resulted in the state government’s increased attention upon the site. While the excavation was first taken up by the ASI, it was halted in 2017 after three seasons of digging. “Perhaps it was that the findings were seen as being as significant as the Indus Valley civilisation that the central government felt provoked,” remarks Santhalingam. “It was only because of the continuous agitation of the Tamil people that led to the state government stepping in and they have since then been doing the excavation here.”
In the days and months that followed, the archaeological site at Keeladi turned into a hub of historical pride. With hundreds visiting the museum and the site of excavation every day, roads were built and better transport facilities became available. Residents of the village found a new source of employment along with the pride of having a museum in their village.
Pasunpon, a resident of Keeladi and mother of two, who has been working as a daily labourer in the excavation site for the last nine years says she can tell by the change in soil colour when an artifact can be expected. She beams with pride while informing that it was her who had first discovered the microbeads from Keeladi that are now in the museum. “It is because I found those beads that Keeladi became famous,” she says.
Harappa-like site
The Times of India, May 30 2016
Arockiaraj Johnbosco
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Harappa-like site unearthed in Tamil Nadu
With structure after structure surfacing from under the soil, the massive scale of an ancient urban centre that lies buried at Pallisanthai Thidal in Sivaganga district of Tamil Nadu is emerging. The second phase of the work undertaken by excavation branch VI, Bangalore, of the Archaeological Survey of India suggests that the settlement at Keeladi village could be as large as the ones in Harappa and Mohenjo Daro. The excavations reveal a well-built urban centre with many amenities.
After exploration works on the Vaigai riverbed in 2013-14, the office of the superintending archaeologist, excavation branch VI in Bangalore, shortlisted Keeladi village for excavation. The first phase of the study carried out in 2015 unearthed various antiquities, iron implements and earthenware, both foreign and locally made. The pot shreds of Arretine dating back to 3 BC proved foreign trade existed in the region during the period.
As the phase I study concluded that this was an ancient urban habitation site, the ASI went for the next phase of excavation at Keeladi. According to archaeologists wor king at the site, the results of phase II in 53 excavation trenches are overwhelming. “, The mound where we are excavating is of 3.5 km circumference in 80 acres of private agricultural land. We are finding structure after structure of the habitation site, the first of its kind in Tamil Nadu. It could be a huge urban settlement of independent civilisation on the banks of the Vaigai,“ said K Amarnath Ramakrishna, superintending archaeologist.
The current excavation works will go on till September this year. The excavation is lending much credence to the narrative in Sangam literature that throws light on the ancient Tamil way of life. The literature speaks volumes about the public and personal lives of rulers and the people of Tamil Nadu some 2000 or more years ago. However, there had been no solid evidence in archaeology to support the Sangam way of life.
Madurai Kanchi, Nedunalvadai and Paripadal in the literature speak about the Madurai and Pandya kingdoms in the region. “These books talk about the personal lives of kings and queens, their palaces and their way of life. But we could not know exactly where the city mentioned in these texts existed,“ says Vedachalam.
Artefacts excavated
The Hindu, November 16, 2016
The Madras High Court Bench asked the Archaeological Survey of India to explain why the artefacts excavated from Pallichanthai Thidal of Keezhadi in the Sivaganga district should not be taken to its Chennai Circle office, instead of the Bengalaru Circle Office, for scientific cleaning, analysis and detailed documentation of the antiquities.
A Division Bench of Justices S. Nagamuthu and M.V. Muralidaran passed the interim order on a public interest litigation petition to prevent the ASI from taking away the artefacts to Karnataka, filed and argued in person by lawyer Kanimozhi Mathi.
The judges also directed the Director General of ASI to consider the plea for establishing a site museum at Keezhadi and inform the decision to the court, possibly by November 24, 2016 itself.
The orders were passed after recording the submission of the Tamil Nadu government that it had already made a commitment to provide 72 cents of land for the establishment of a site museum, and was ready to provide even more, if required.
However, in his counter-affidavit, K. Amarnath Ramakrishna, Superintending Archaeologist, ASI, Excavation Branch-VI, Bengaluru, said the establishment of the site museum was a policy matter that could be taken only at the highest level.
‘National property’
Replying to the petitioner’s contention that the artefacts reveal the existence of an ancient Tamil civilisation and thus should not be moved outside the State, Mr. Ramakrishna said: “I submit that the excavated remains at Keezhadi can better be named and referred to as ‘National Heritage’ rather than calling it the pride of the Tamil community... Any antiquity or material retrieved from archaeological excavations are national property.”
“The objective of the exploration was to ascertain a suitable site for the systematic excavation to understand the cultural transformation of early historic Tamil Nadu,” he said.
Pointing out that the excavation work for the second season was stopped on September 30, he said the approval for the third season (2016-17) was yet to be received from the Director General’s office. Fearing for the safety of the antiquities if they were continued to be stored at the camp site at Keezhadi, he said they could be documented only if they were taken to the Bengaluru Circle Office and subjected to scientific cleaning and analysis.
Artefacts belong to Sangam era
Samples sent from archaeological excavations at Keezhadi have been identified as nearly 2,200 years old
For several years, experts had surmised that the archaeological site at Keezhadi in Sivaganga district of Tamil Nadu dates back to the Sangam era.
Now, carbon dating has confirmed that two samples sent from the site are indeed nearly 2,200 years old.
The Keezhadi dig that started in 2013 provides archaeological evidence of ancient Tamil life that has so far been known largely from texts like Sangam literature.
While replying to DMK MP Kanimozhi in the Rajya Sabha on Thursday, the Union Ministry of Culture informed the Upper House that the Archaeological Survey of India had sent two carbon samples from Keezhadi for carbon dating to Beta Analytic Inc., Florida, USA.
Historical calendarcol
“Radio Carbon dating suggests that the samples go back to 2,160+30 years and 2,200+30 years,” stated the Ministry.
Archaeologists found deposits up to 4.5 metres deep and the samples (of carbon elements) sent for carbon dating were from the middle part – i.e. 2 metres, says ASI’s Superintending Archaeologist K. Amarnath Ramakrishna in Guwahati who led the excavations in Keezhadi earlier.
“We can now say for sure that the samples were from 3rd century BC,” says Mr. Ramakrishna.
Major find
Unlike many other archaeological sites excavated in Tamil Nadu, Keezhadi is a major habitation site.
“The last time habitation sites were excavated in Tamil Nadu was at Arikamedu. We zeroed in on Keezhadi after studying both banks of Vaigai river through its entire stretch from Western Ghats till the point it reaches the Bay of Bengal,” he says.
A total of 72 potsherds with Tamil Brahmi script were found at Keezhadi which had several Tamil names.
“Iyanan, Uthiran, Vendhan, Santhanavathi and Saathan were some of the Tamil names found,” he says. When asked whether the Archaeological Survey of India was planning to set up any museum at Keezhadi, Superintending Archaeologist of Chennai Circle A.M.V. Subramanyam said such policy decisions have to be taken at New Delhi.
The faces of some Keeladi men reconstructed
Rajshekhar Jha, June 29, 2025: The Times of India
New Delhi : Seasoned IPS officer Parag Jain, a specialist on Pakistan and China, was appointed to lead the Research and Analysis Wing (RAW), on the back of his pivotal role in the collection of crucial intelligence which shaped the precise execution of Operation Sindoor.
The Centre issued an order Saturday in this regard after the Cabinet approved Jain’s appointment, ushering in anew tech-focused era for India’s external intelligence agency. He will have a two-year tenure after taking over on July 1. A 1989-batch Punjab cadre IPS officer, Jain succeeds Ravi Sinha, who retires June 30.
Jain, currently heading the Aviation Research Centre (ARC) in the agency, is known within the agency as “a man who listens” and “who gets things done,” people who know him closely said. “He is a field-tested man who has sharp thinking and operates in silence without much hullabaloo,” said an officer.
Jain was the field commissioner in the cabinet secretariat (official name for RAW) and posted in Jammu during the air strikes in Balakot and abrogation of Article 370. His key stints were in Nepal, Canada, where his team tracked Khalistani outfits and their members, and in Sri Lanka during its economic crisis.
“In his new role, he will prioritise leveraging technology for advanced intelligence collection, monitoring diaspora communities, and developing strategies to counter hybrid warfare tactics, particularly in response to the escalating threats of disinformation warfare posed by China and Pakistan,” a govt officer said.
With experience in leading the Pakistan and Canada desks, Jain has been an asset for the agency for the last 14 years, spearheading many technical-and-human-intelligence-based operations, sources said. He was also spotted in the cabinet committee on security meeting held by PM Narendra Modi on April 23.
As chief of ARC in the cabinet secretariat, Jain is credited with the introduction of new technology in unmanned surveillance using drones, besides aerial monitoring to support special operations. While Jain has his task cut out as the head of the agency, China and Pakistan post-Op Sindoor are being considered his key focus areas. His appointment is also being seen as a strong message to Canada. Jain found himself in Canada’s crosshairs following the assassination of terrorist Hardeep Singh Nijjar.
Prior to joining RAW, Jain had a distinguished policing career in Punjab, serving in prominent positions such as senior superintendent of police in Chandigarh, deputy inspector general of Ludhiana Range, and SP of Patiala, Mansa, and Bhatinda districts.
The people of Keeladi
Ragu Raman, June 29, 2025: The Times of India
From: Ragu Raman, June 29, 2025: The Times of India
From: Ragu Raman, June 29, 2025: The Times of India
From: Ragu Raman, June 29, 2025: The Times of India
From: Ragu Raman, June 29, 2025: The Times of India
From: Ragu Raman, June 29, 2025: The Times of India
From: Ragu Raman, June 29, 2025: The Times of India
It’s around 6th century BCE. A boat from Alagankulam sails down the Vaigai carrying foreign traders. As it nears Madurai, beyond the palm and coconut trees, small houses with tiled roofs emerge. Cattle graze in the meadows, children play a version of hopscotch, farmers tend fields of paddy, black gram and millets.
In a rectangular yard, men dip yarn in mud vats filled with blue and red dye. Others draw water from ringwells and pour them into terracotta channels that feed the vats. Elsewhere, women gin raw cotton to be spun into yarn. Craftsmen chip and polish carnelian pebbles into beads. A few others heat iron ore to extract the metal.
The traders have horses and wine to sell and seek to buy fine cotton fabric, precious stones, iron tools, peacock plumes, and ivory. They feast on the local cuisine – a rich variety of vegetables, goat, pig and deer meat; also milk, butter, and a kind of fermented drink.
It’s a typical day in ancient Keeladi, which teems with life and enterprise connected to Europe through traders of the Middle East. Nearby Porunthal, Kodumanal, Poompuhar, Korkai, and Alagankulam are also thriving centres of enterprise and trade. The Mahajanapadas in the Gangetic plains, including the Magadha kingdom in Bihar, were established around the same period. The state archaeology department, which took over excavations at Keeladi from the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) in 2018, obtained 29 radiocarbon dates from US lab Beta Analytics. These range from 580 BCE to 200 CE and confirm the site is contemporaneous with the urbanisation of the Gangetic plains and is part of India’s second urbanisation, which took place in the 6th century BCE.
How do we know what Keeladi was like? Through a combination of scientific studies, archaeological evidence and literary references. More than 20 research institutions from India and abroad, including Liverpool John Moores University, UK, University of Pisa in Italy, the Field Museum in Chicago in the US, the French Institute of Pondicherry, IIT Gandhinagar, Deccan College in Pune, Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeosciences in Lucknow, Madurai Kamaraj University, National Institute of Advanced Studies in Bengaluru, and Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research in Kalpakkam, are working with the state archaeology department to reconstruct life in Keeladi. A diatom (algae) study by the Agharkar Research Institute in Pune suggests the terracotta pipes at Keeladi contain industrial waste, probably cloth dye. “The associated findings such as spindle whorls, bone points used for design, copper needles, and earthen vessels indicate weaving flourished at Keeladi,” says archaeologist K Rajan, advisor, state department of archaeology. Another pointer that weaving flourished then is the name in the Sangam text ‘Purananuru’ for women skilled in various stages of weaving, ‘paruthi pendir’ (cotton lasses). It’s not just textiles. Iron slag and a double-walled furnace found at Keeladi confirm the people knew iron smelting. Bead-making was another industry that flourished as evident from the rich haul of carnelian, agate and glass beads, some of which were half-finished.
The ASI in the first two seasons of excavations found evidence of horses in Keeladi; the tooth of a horse unearthed at Keeladi was validated by Deccan College in Pune. This confirms what Sangam era text ‘Pattinapalai’ says: horses came in ships. Experts say they could have been brought by Arab traders.
The port of Alagankulam is at the mouth of river Vaigai, which now flows 2km from Keeladi. But in ancient times the Vaigai could have run closer to Keeladi as river sand was found below the cultural deposit at the site. That’s why researchers say Arab traders could have come up the river from Alagankulam with horses to sell.
Keeladi is situated on the ancient overland trade route connecting Alagankulam port to Muziris port via Madurai. “Foreign traders came here for cloth ‘as light as steam’, conch shell ornaments, precious stones, iron, peacock plumes, and ivory,” says Indologist R Balakrishnan.
But what were the people of Keeladi like? Researchers have reconstructed a couple of facesfrom skulls found there. DNA tests will tell us more. But we know that the names Atan and Centan, two of the several ones inscribed on potsherds at Keeladi, are common in Sangam literature. They could have lived with their families near the industrial complex excavated at Keeladi. Based on the excavations and artefacts unearthed, we know they lived in tiled-roof houses filled with storage containers, pots and bowls, and lamps.
The men and women wore gold ornaments – pendants, rings, bangles, and necklaces – studded with gemstones, and terracotta ear studs. Sangam literature speaks of women decorating their eyebrows using antimony rods; these have been found at Keeladi.
But where did the people of Keeladi come from? Did they migrate from the banks of Indus in the north? Scientists have collected ancient DNA from the skulls and bones. “After analysing the DNA, we will understand the human migration, ancestry and admixture of ancient inhabitants of Keeladi and Kondagai,” says professor G Kumaresan, department of genetics, Madurai Kamaraj University. And how did the settlement die out? Was there a great drought that forced people to move away? Diatom analysis of Keeladi’s ringwells by the Agharkar Institute shows scarcity of algal deposits for an extended period. This indicates drought.
WHAT NEXT?
Archaeologists have excavated only 4% of the 110-acre cultural mound at Keeladi, protected for ages by a coconut grove, despite digging for 10 seasons. They have found thousands of artefacts and Sangam Age (6th century BCE to 3rd century CE) structures, including multiple complex brick structures, a drainage system with a tank-like feature, a brick platform, a double-walled furnace, and terracotta pipes and terracotta ring wells. However, they are yet to find the streets of the ancient settlement. So, the excavations are likely to continue at least till the streets and the layout of the city are found. The state govt is building an onsite museum at Keeladi so that people can see how Tamils lived in Sangam Age.
WAS IT A CITY OR AN INDUSTRIAL SUBURB OF ANCIENT MADURAI?
Despite the discovery of thousands of artefacts by the state archaeology department and ASI at Keeladi, the original name of the ancient settlement remains unknown. Whether it was a city in its own right or one of the industrial suburbs of ancient Madurai is yet to be determined. Some suggest it could be the Manalur mentioned in 13th century literature. The site is located on the ancient trade route from Alagankulam on the east coast to Muziris on the west coast via Madurai.
Nanotechnology
Older than the Damascus blades
Chandrima Banerjee, November 27, 2020: The Times of India
‘World’s first use of nanotech was in India, 2,600 yrs ago’
Five years ago, in a nondescript village some 450km from Chennai, were found the remains of a city that went back to the 3rd-6th century BCE. Now, in broken pieces of pottery from the excavation site, Keeladi, scientists have stumbled upon the world’s first known use of nanotechnology, over 2,600 years ago. The findings have been documented in a paper published in ‘Nature’ this month, reports Chandrima Banerjee.
“Before this, the oldest known carbon nanostructures were found in Damascus blades from the 16th-18th century CE,” corresponding author of the paper, Dr Nagaboopathy Mohan, told TOI. The Damascus blades, in fact, were also made in India. “The technique for coating used in Damascus blades appears to have been known only to Indians,” Mohan added, referring to a paper in ‘Nature’ about this. Before that, gold and silver nanoparticles were found in Islamic pottery from the 7th-8th century CE and in the Roman Lycurgus Cup from the 4th century CE.
This pushes the oldest known use of nanotechnology back by a thousand years.
Carbon nanotubes are tubes of carbon that are a billionth of a metre in diameter. Their occurrence was discovered in 1991 by Japanese scientist Sumio Iijima. Since then, researchers have come up with many ways to synthesise it. The most common method is chemical vapour deposition, Mohan explained, involving a complex process with high temperatures from 800°C.
