Jaisalmer State, 1908
This article has been extracted from THE IMPERIAL GAZETTEER OF INDIA , 1908. OXFORD, AT THE CLARENDON PRESS. |
Note: National, provincial and district boundaries have changed considerably since 1908. Typically, old states, ‘divisions’ and districts have been broken into smaller units, and many tahsils upgraded to districts. Some units have since been renamed. Therefore, this article is being posted mainly for its historical value.
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Jaisalmer State
Physical aspects
The most western and the third in size of the States of Rajputana, lying between 26 4' and 28 23' N. and 69 30' and 7 2 42' E., with an area of 16,062 square miles. It is bounded on the north by Bahawalpur ; on the west by Sind ; on the south and east by Jodhpur; and on the north-east by Blkaner. The country is almost entirely a sandy waste, forming part of what is known as the Great Indian Desert. In the V 1 ct neighbourhood of Jaisalmer town, and within a circuit of about 40 miles, the soil is very stony, and numerous low rocky ridges and hard undulating plains occur; but with this exception the general aspect is that of an interminable sea of sandhills of all shapes and sizes, some rising to a height of 150 feet. The sandhills in the west are covered with phog (Calligonum) bushes, and those in the east with tufts of long grass. Shifting sands, locally termed dhrians, are common. Nothing can well bear a more desolate appearance. The villages are few and far between, sparsely populated, and consist as a rule of a few circular huts or wigwams collected round a well of brackish water. A small stream called the Kakni rises near the village of Kotri, 17 miles south of the capital, and after flowing first in a northerly and next in a westerly direction, forms a lake called the Bhuj jhil-y in years of heavy rainfall it deviates from its usual course, and instead of turning to the west continues north for about 12 miles till checked by the recently constructed Daiya dam.
The surface of the country is to a large extent covered by dunes of blown sand of the transverse type : that is, with their longer axes at right angles to the direction of the prevailing wind. Rocks of Jurassic age, such as sandstones, shales, and limestones, crop out from beneath the sand, and a large area of Nummulitic rock occurs to the north-west of the capital.
The fauna is not much varied. Wild hog and leopards are occa- sionally seen ; antelopes are found in the east ; while the Indian gazelle, the bustard, and several species of sand-grouse are more or less common.
The climate is dry and healthy, but the hot season is very prolonged and the heat is intense and trying. The temperature is highest in May and June, when hot winds prevail with much violence, while the coldest period is in January, the thermometer frequently falling below freezing- point. The rainfall is precarious and varies in different parts. The annual fall at the capital since 1883 has averaged between 6 and 7 inches. Statistics for other places in the State are available only since 1895, and they show that the fall is usually a little greater in the east and south, and less as one proceeds west. The year of heaviest rainfall was 1883, when more than 15 inches were registered at Jaisal- mer, while in 1899 no ram at a fell at Khabha to the south-west and Ramgarh to the north-west.
History
The chiefs of Jaisalmer are Rajputs of the Jadon clan, and claim descent from the deified hero, Krishna. According to the annals of the State, the tribe became dispersed at the death of Krishna, and many of them, including two of his sons, proceeded northwards beyond the Indus and settled there. One of their descendants, Gaj, is said to have built a fort called Gajni (identified by Tod as the Ghazni of Afghanistan, but believed by Cunningham to be in the vicinity of Rawalpindi) ; but being defeated and killed in a battle with the king of Khorasan, his followers were driven southward into the Punjab, where Salivahan established a new capital, which he called after himself, and which has been identified with Sialkot. This chief subsequently defeated the Indo-Scytbians in a decisive battle near Kahror, within 60 miles of Multan.
So great was the fame of this victory that the conqueror assumed the title of Sakari, or ' foe of the Sakas ' (Scythians), and further to commemorate the event established the Saka era from the date of the battle (a. d. 78), an epoch which is still in general use throughout India. Salivahan's grandson, Bhati, was a renowned warrior who conquered many of the neighbouring chiefs, and from him the tribe now takes the name of Bhati Jadons. Subsequently, the Bhatis were gradually driven south- wards till, crossing the Sutlej, they took refuge in the Indian desert which has since been their home. Here they came into contact with various Rajput clans, such as the BQtas and Chunnas (both extinct), the Barahas (now Musalmans), the Langahas, and the Sodhas and Lodras (both branches of the Paramaras). Their first capital was at Tanot, still in Jaisalmer territory, which was founded about the middle of the eighth century; but being ousted from this, Deoraj, the first chief to assume the title of Rawal, built Deogarh or Deontwar in 853, now called Denlwar in Bahawalpur territory, and established himself there. Shortly afterwards, the capital was changed to Lodorva, an immense city with twelve gates taken from the Lodra Rajputs, the ruins of which lie 10 miles west-by-north of Jaisalmer town. Lodorva was, however, ill adapted for defence, so Jaisal sought for a stronger place and founded the fort and city of Jaisalmer in 1156. He was succeeded by several warlike chiefs who were constantly engaged in raids and battles, but their passion for freebooting proved disastrous.
Authentic history begins at the end of the thirteenth and the beginning of the fourteenth centuries, when the Bhatis so enraged Ala-ud-dln that his army captured and sacked the fort and city of Jaisalmer, which for some time remained deserted. Sabal Singh, who began to rule about 165 1, was the first of the Bhati chiefs who held his dominions as a fief of the Delhi empire. According to the annals of the Kishangarh State, he served in Peshawar and Kandahar, and received the grant of Jaisalmer through the intercession of his cousin, Raja Rup Singh of Kishangarh. Jaisalmer had now arrived at the height of its power ; the territory extended north to the Sutlej, comprised the whole of Bahawalpur westward to the Indus, and to the east and south included many districts subsequently annexed by the Rathors and incorporated in Marwar and Blkaner.
But from this time till the accession of Maharawal Mulraj in 1762 the fortunes of the State rapidly declined, and most of the outlying districts were lost. Owing, however, to its isolated situation it escaped the ravages of the Marathas, and it was partly for this reason that Jaisalmer was one of the last States in Rajputana to be taken under the protection of the British Govern- ment. By the treaty dated December 12, 18 18, concluded with Mulraj, the succession was guaranteed to his posterity ; the chief was to be protected from serious invasions and dangers to his State, provided he was not the originator of the quarrel, and he was to act in subordinate co-operation with the British Government.
Apart from this treaty, the only important events of Mulraj's rule were the cruel atrocities of his minister, Mehta Salim Singh. According to Tod, this man, a Mahajan by caste and a Jain by religion, united ' the subtlety of the serpent to the ferocity of the tiger.' He put to death nearly all the relatives of the chief. With commercial men and with the industrious agriculturists or pastoral communities 'he had so long forfeited all claim to credit that his oath was not valued at a single grain of the sand of their own desert dominion'; and finally he drove out the Paliwal Brahmans, famous as enterprising cultivators and landholders, who had constructed most of the kharins or irrigation tanks now to be found in the State, and whose solid well-built villages still stand deserted, marking an era of prosperity to which it will be difficult for the State ever again to attain.
Salim Singh, however, was mortally wounded by a Rajput in 1824, and, as there was some fear that the wound might heal, his wife gave him poison. Mulraj, who had died four years before, was succeeded by his grandson Gaj Singh. In 1829 a Blkaner army invaded Jaisalmer to revenge some injuries committed by subjects of the latter ; but the British Government interfered, and through the arbitration of the MahSrana of Udaipur the dispute was settled. In 1844, after the British conquest of Sind, the forts of Shahgarh, Garsia, and Ghotaru, which had formerly belonged to Jaisalmer, were restored; and in 1846 Gaj Singh died. His widow adopted his nephew Ranjlt Singh, who ruled till 1864, when he was succeeded by his younger brother, Bairi Sal. On the death of the latter in 1891, his widows adopted Syam Singh, son of Thakur Kushal Singh of Lathi ; and the choice being confirmed by the Government of India, Syam Singh succeeded and took the family name of Salivahan. He was born in 1887, and has been a student at the Mayo College at Ajmer since 1894. The Mahar&wal of Jaisalmer is entitled to a salute of 15 guns.
Among places of archaeological interest may be mentioned the village and fort of Birsilpur (in the north-east), said to have been founded in the second century; Tanot, the first desert capital of the Bhatis, with its fort and temple dating from the eighth century; Lodorva, which has a Jain temple said to be over 1,000 years old ; and Sirwa, a village about 24 miles south-by-south-east of Jaisalmer town, which possesses a building with thirty-two pillars said to have been erected in 820.
Population
The number of towns and villages in the State is 472, and the population at each Census was: (1881) 108,143, (1891) 115,701, and . ( I 9° I ) 73>37°- The decrease of over 36 per cent, in the last decade was due to the famine of 1899- 1900, and excessive mortality and emigration resulting therefrom. The only town in the State is the capital, Jaisalmer (population, 7,137). The State is divided into sixteen districts or hukumats, the areas of which vary from about 2,220 to 262 square miles; one district has 100 villages, while two others have but one each ; and again one district has one person per square mile, while the most densely populated has but fifteen. Indeed, the density per square mile for the whole State is but 4-56. In 1 90 1 Hindus numbered 51,990, or 70 per cent, of the total; Musalmans, 18,648, or more than 25 per cent.; Animists, 1,551 ; and Jains, 1,178. The languages mainly spoken are Marwarf and Sindi.
The most numerous tribe is that of the Rajputs, who number 31,000, or over 42 per cent, of the total, but more than one-third of them are Musalmans. Next come the Chamftrs, who number 8,900, Shaikhs 5,600, and Mahajans 5,200. More than 36 per cent, of the people are engaged in or dependent on agriculture ; but they lead a wandering life, migrating regularly to Sind in the cold season, and many are graziers and keep herds of camels, cattle, sheep, and goats.
The soil is for the most part light and sandy, and, as the rain sinks in and does not flow off the surface, a small rainfall suffices for the crops. Save in the few places where water can be stored, only rains crops such as bajra y A * nc e# jowar, mung) moth, and /// are grown, and the system of cultivation is rude. Camels are largely used for ploughing; the ploughs are light and just scratch the ground; the seed is sown broadcast, and after it has sprouted a few showers at long intervals bring it to maturity. No agricultural statistics are available; but a good deal of cultivation goes on during the rains, and in favourable seasons (which are few and far between) the produce is said to be just suffi- cient for the immediate wants of the people. Where the soil is harder and the surroundings hilly and rocky, irrigation is carried on to a small extent from kharins or shallow depressions into which the rain-water flows. Wheat and gram are sown in the beds of these tanks, and only very occasionally can the water be conveyed by ducts to land outside. Since 1892 about Rs. 65,000 has been spent in constructing and repairing kharins, and there are now 377 of them. Wells, being on the average 250 feet in depth, cannot be used for irrigation.
The wealth of the rural population consists almost entirely in their herds of camels, cattle, sheep, and goats, which thrive in spite of the arid nature of the country. The camels are famous for their easy paces, speed, and hardiness ; they plough and harrow the ground, bring home the harvests, carry food and water, and are both ridden and driven. Cattle are bred in considerable numbers, and are of a good class ; while the sheep and goats, though small, fatten well.
Salt of fair quality is found in several localities, but is manufactured only at Kilnod, about 20 miles north-east of the capital. Brine occurs 10 feet below the surface, and is drawn from pits by the weighted pole and bucket It is then exposed to evaporation in pans, and a small-grained white salt is obtained. The out-turn is limited by the agreement of 1879 with the British Government to 15,000 maunds a year, entirely for local consumption and use. There are several quarries of limestone near the capital ; the stone produced is very fine, even-grained, and compact, of a buff or light-brown colour, and admirably adapted for carving. It takes a fair polish, and was at one time used for lithographic blocks. Another variety of yellow limestone is found at the village of Habur, 28 miles north-west of the capital; large quantities of an iron ore resembling red ochre are blended with it. Sandstone quarries are worked at BhadSsar, 17 miles north-west of Jaisalmer town, and fuller's earth and other clays exist in several places.
Trade and communication
The manufactures are confined to blankets of sheep's wool, small bags and druggets of goats' and camels' hair, and co Jm^cSons. stone CU P S and P latters - The chief ex P° rts are
- wool, ghl, camels, cattle, sheep, and fuller's earth ;
and the chief imports are grain, cotton, piece-goods, and tobacco. The trade is mostly with Sind.
No railways traverse the State, the nearest station being Barmer on the Jodhpur-Bikaner Railway, some 90 miles south of Jaisalmer town ; and, with the exception of about 6 miles of metalled road in and near the capital, the communications are mere sandy tracks, sometimes marked by milestones. There is but one post office in the State, the mails being carried by runners to and from Barmer, which also possesses the nearest telegraph office.
Famine
The State is visited by constant scarcities, caused by short rainfall or damage done by locusts ; indeed hardly a year passes in which a failure of crops does not occur in some part of amine. jaisalmer. Yet the people suffer less than one would expect, as emigration is an annual event. Practically the only harvest is that sown during the rains; and as soon as it is gathered in September or October, large numbers leave every year to find employment in Sind and Bahawalpur.
The people are, by nature and of necessity, self-reliant ; they are indifferent, if not averse, to assistance from the State coffers, and many of them consider it so derogatory to be seen earning wages on relief works in their own country that they prefer migration. The Darbar, though its revenue is small, has during recent years done what it could to relieve distress and provide tanks for the storage of water; but a scanty rainfall means not only no crops or indifferent ones, but also difficulty in finding water for man and beast, as well as grass and fodder. The result is that, on the first approach of scarcity, the people leave in larger numbers than usual with their flocks and herds for Sind. Emigration, consequently, has always been, and must continue to be, the main form of relief. No detailed accounts are available of the famines or scarcities prior to 189 1-2. In that year, and again in 1895-7 and 190 1-2, scarcities affected from one- half to the whole of the State. Relief works were started, but gene- rally failed to attract labour, and a certain amount of gratuitous relief was given. The direct expenditure varied from Rs. 4,000 in 1891-2 to Rs. 40,000 in 1895-7; and as, under the land revenue system, the Darbar takes a share of the produce, its losses under this head were considerable. The famine of 1 889-1 900 was a severe one. The rainfall was less than an inch and the whole State was affected. About 50,000 people emigrated to Sind and Bahawal- pur, taking with them 12 per cent, of the horned cattle and 20 per cent, of the camels. Assuming that half of these animals were brought back, the State lost about 148,000 cattle and over 7,400 camels. Relief works and poorhouses were open for twelve months, and more than 410,000 units were relieved. The total expenditure was about Rs. 52,000.
Administration
During the minority of Maharawai Salivahan the administration is being conducted by a Dlwan and Council of four members, under the general superintendence of the Resident, Western Rajputana States. In each of the sixteen Administration. hukumats there is a hakim. The lowest courts are those of the hakims \ fourteen of them can punish with imprisonment up to fifteen days and fine not exceeding Rs. 50, while the remaining two, and also the city kohval, can pass a. sentence of one month's im- prisonment. All these officers have certain civil powers. But most petty civil suits are decided by a panchayat of three or more mem- bers appointed by the parties concerned, the award being final; or if the parties cannot agree, by a body known as a sultani panchayat appointed by the h&kim or kotival as the case may be. The Sadr Criminal Court, besides hearing appeals against the orders of the lower courts, tries cases beyond their powers, and. can sentence to imprisonment up to one year and fine up to Rs. 300.
The Sadr Civil Court also hears appeals against the orders of the lower courts (including the awards of sultani panc?uiyats\ and tries suits beyond their powers. Decrees for sums exceeding Rs. 5,000 are subject to the confirmation of the Resident Here again many of the suits are decided by arbitrators chosen by the parties. The Dlwan hears appeals against the orders of the Sadr Criminal and Civil Courts, and tries such original cases as are beyond the powers of the former. He can sentence up to two years' imprisonment and Rs. 500 fine; sentences exceeding these limits, and all sentences in cases of homicide and dacoity, are subject to the confirmation of the Resident. The court of the Resident is the highest in the State; besides dealing with such cases as require its confirmation, it can call for the proceedings in any case and revise the orders passed.
The normal revenue of the State is nearly one lakh, the chief sources being customs, about Rs. 48,000; and land, about Rs. 16,000. The ordinary expenditure may be put at about Rs. 88,000, the main items being: cost of administrative staff (civil and judicial), Rs. 26,000; army and police, Rs. 18,000; palace expenditure (including the Mahai&waPs education), Rs. 12,000; and stables (including elephants, camels, &c), about Rs. 10,000. The famines and scarcities which have been so frequent during the past decade have not only reduced the revenue, but have necessitated much extraordinary expenditure, with the result that at the present time the State owes about 2 lakhs to the British Government.
Jaisalmer has its own coinage, called Akhai shahi after Maharawal Akhai Singh, who established a mint at the capital in 1756. The local rupee in 1895 was worth more than 15 British annas, but now exchanges for about 11; its value fluctuates almost daily, and has been as low as 9 annas. The mint has not been worked since 1899, and the Akhai shahi coins will be converted as soon as possible.
The land revenue system has undergone no changes for a long period, and neither a survey nor any regular settlement has been under- taken. The revenue is mostly paid in kind. Where wheat or gram is grown, the State takes from one-fifth to one-sixth of the produce ; and of the rains crops from one-fifth to one-eleventh. There are four different modes of estimating the State share of the out-turn. In the first, the crop is valued when standing ; in the second, when cut, but before threshing ; in the third, after it has been threshed out ; and in the fourth, from the condition of the bare standing stalks. In addition to the portion payable to the State, the cultivator has to settle the demands of the men told off to watch the crops in the DarbaVs interests and of certain other officials ; these demands collectively amount to about half of what is taken by the State. In places, the land revenue is paid in cash at Rs. 2 (local currency) for as much land as can be cultivated with a pair of bullocks. Of the 471 villages in Jaisalmer, 239 are hhd/sa, or pay revenue direct to the State, 88 are held by jdglrdars y 24 as charitable grants, 11 under title-deeds, 99 in bhum % and 10 for services to the State. Only one of the jdgirddrs pays tribute ; but all serve the Darbar when called on, pay meota or fee on succession, and present the chief with a horse on certain occasions. Lands given in charity (sasari) enjoy complete immunity from all State dues and are practically grants in perpetuity. Those who hold under title-deeds (patta) or for service rendered to the State pay nothing, but retain their estates at the pleasure of the Darbar; while the bhumids have to serve when called on, and pay a fixed sum yearly, as well as certain sums on such occasions as the chiefs accession, marriage, &c.
The State troops number 220 of all arms: namely, 39 cavalry, 168 infantry, and 13 artillerymen. Out of 25 guns, 17 are serviceable. The annual expenditure on the army is about Rs. 10,000. The police force numbers 152 men, of whom 72 are mounted, chiefly on camels, and the annual cost is about Rs. 9,000. There is one jail (at the capital), and small lock-ups in the districts.
In regard to the literacy of its population Jaisalmer stands tenth among the twenty States and chiefships of Rajputana, with 2-9 per cent. (5*4 males and o«i females) able to read and write. Excluding indi- genous schools managed by Jatis (Jain priests), the State now contains three schools. In 1901 the vernacular alone was taught, the atten- dance was 69, and the expenditure about Rs. 600. In 1903 English classes were started at the capital, and the attendance at the three institutions has now risen to 183 and the expenditure to about Rs. 1,100. No fees are charged.
The State possesses a small hospital and a lunatic asylum, both at the capital, which cost about Rs. 3,000 a year. A staff of vaccinators is employed, who in 1904-5 successfully vaccinated 1,104 persons, or 15 per 1,000 of the total population. ,
[C. K. M. Walter, Gazetteer of Jaisahner{\%ii)\ Rajputana Gazetteer, vol. ii (1879, under revision) ; Report on Famine-Relief Operations during 1896-7 ; A. Adams, The Western Rajputana States (1899).]
