Faunal Resources In India: Invertebrate Diversity

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Faunal Resource Analysis Invertebrate Diversity In India

This is an extract from FAUNAL DIVERSITY IN INDIA Edited by J. R. B. Alfred A. K. Das A. K. Sanyal. ENVIS Centre, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta. 1998 ( J. R. B. Alfred was Director, Zoological Survey of India)

Faunal Resource Analysis Invertebrate Diversity In India

Protozoa live under all natural conditions and have been reported from freshwater, brackish and marine, soil and moss as free-living forms. Parasitic protozoans occur in epizoic, luminicolous, coelozoic, histozoic and coprozoic environs. Protista (Protozoa) are represented by 1330 parasitic species (52%) and 1247 free-living (48%) totaling 2577 species in India as against 32% parasitic and 68% free-living species known so far from the world. It may be mentioned that the parasitic species especially trypanosomes are well studied because many of them are associated with certain dreaded diseases of man and animals. Non-trypanosome flagellate parasites such as Retortomonas, Monocercomonas, and Chilomastox have also been studied among vertebrate hosts. Several workers. deal haemosporidians, which include malaria and related parasites; the occurrence of this group is reported from fishes (Ray and Choudhury, 1981), amphibia (Rona limnocharis by Singh et 01., 1951-56), birds (Nandi and Mondal, 1976), bats (Sinha and Das Gupta, 1989), and crab eating monkeys of Great Nicobar (Das Gupta et al., 1965). It is estimated that the number of species in the protozoa so far known is only one-fourth of the species expected to occur in India. Therefore, much more attention is required to know the Protozoan fauna in India. Taxonomic details of the phylum Protozoa

The Mesozoa known in India by 10 endemic species as against 71 species in the world (approx. 14%) remain a subject for further research to reveal the real diversity and endemicity. The porifera are represented by 486 species, of which 455 are marine and 31 freshwater accounting for nearly 11% of the species known in the world. The present species diversity of the group exceeds 500 species, as a large number of marine sponges have been added to the list from the recent explorations. However, marine Porifera are estimated to be much more than what are known till date. It maybe mentioned that the marine sponge fauna known in India shows close relationship with those of the Australian region, the Pacific Ocean and Red sea.

Bioactive and biomedical compound of sponges are extracted and used extensively in immunological studies. Besides the above, certain chemicals extracted from this group exhibit antifertility, antimicrobial and antifouling properties. The wonder drug Arabinose nucleoside extracted from Tetya crypta is now used in the treatment of blood cancer and certain malignant tumours. Recently, as a matter of conservation of the sponges, Government of India wide their notification No. 1-4/95/WL-I, dated 11.07.2001 included all calcareous sponges under Schedule-III of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.

There are 842 species of the Cnidaria known in India as against 9916 species in the world (8.49%). Among them, the ctenophores register only 12 in number (12% of the world fauna) and are distributed in marine environs. These play an importat role in the food web as small and large fishes in the coastal ecosystem feed them. The lysosomal property exhibited by the lasso cells of ctenophores is having biomedical value. The siphonophores are abundant as tropical marine planktonic forms represented by 15 families, 45 genera and 120 species known from the Indian Ocean. Of these, Daniel (1986) studied 39 genera, 90 species from Indian seas (25°N to lOS Lat. and 600E to 1000E Long.). The monotypic family Physalidae is represented by a single species Physalia physalis (Portuguese mall of war) with two dimorphic forms common throughout the tropical seas and inflicts injuries to humans. A few of the siphonophores reach several meters in length and are known only from the fragments of its polymorphic forms in the cold deep sea (e.g., Halistemma TIIbTllm). Nearly six species of the genus Forskalia are known from Indian Ocean are found during the upwelling of deeper waters and occur near the sub-antartic convergence belt. The members of Siphonophora not only indicate the movement of water mass in the ocean but also show the diversity of plankton species in the area, that is acts as "indicator species" of fisheries (e.g., Dimophyes arctica). Nearly 18 species of siphonophores are known from the Antartic Ocean, and these are considered as indicator species of cold7water masses. Sderactenia constitute a class of the phylum includes corals which are exclusively marine with calcareous exoskeleton and are grouped into four major orders. The coral reefs abound with a rich biodiversity and are often compared with the "Tropical Rain Forests" of the terrestrial region in respect of biodiversity as well as productivity. Their role is similar to mangroves in protecting the hinterland and building up the coastline. The coral reef area are the habitat for a number of ornamental fishes (several families particularly Muraenidae, Balistidae, Scorpaenidae, Tetraodontidae, Syngnathidae, Chaetodontidae, Pomacanthidae, Pomacentridae), food fishes (families particularly, Clupeidae, Luijanidae, Serranidae, Lathrinidae, Siganidae, Caesionidae, Haemulidae), shells, worms, echinoderms, etc. The most important associates of the corals are the zooxanthellae, which are symbionts -sometimes even obligatory. These play an important role in the carbon cycle of the sea by absorbing the carbon dioxide and releasing oxygen through photosynthesis. These contribute the major share of the primary productivity of the system. Their presence gives the corals beautiful colourations. During adverse conditions (siltation, high temperatures, etc.) the zooxanthellae leave or expelled by the corals and the latter loose their colors. These bleached corals may regain their healthy condition once the ambient parameters are restored to normalcy. In addition to the biodiversity, economic, medicinal values directly discernible, the totality of values of corals can be summarized as shown below:

VALUES OF CORAL REEFS (After Dixon, 1997)

A. Use Values 1. Direct Use Values • Consumptive Use: Shell Collection, Fish Collection, Pharmaceutical • Non-Consumptive Use: Tourism, Recreation

2. Indirect Use Values : Storm Surge, Fish Nursery, Food Chain, Sand for Beach Nourishment B. Non-use Values 1 Option Value, Viewing, Recreational Use 2 Bequest Value, Recreational Amenities 3 Existence Value, Biodiversity Value

Anthozoa is the most primitive of the four groups and includes true corals, which build giant reefs in tropical waters as well as sea anemones, sea fans and sea pens. Cubozoa consists of deadly box jellies with complex eyes. Hydrozoa is the most diverse group with hydroids, Siphanophores, fire corals and many medusae. Scyphozoa are the big jellyfishes, all numbering nearly 830 species. Obviously, there is a large gap in our knowledge on the Cnidaria in India. Importance of corals and coral ecosystem have been well understood recently, and looking at its biological, aesthetic, scientific and geoposilional significance and values, the entire hard corals have been included under Schedule-I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972. Distribution of Corals in India

The platyhelminthes or flat worms are mostly parasitic; this phenomenon has greatly influenced the character of the group and constitutes only 9.27% of the world-fauna. The free-living Turbellarians with only 47 species (approx.1%) of the world fauna have received very little attention. Among the Trematodes, most of the Monogenea numbering 295 are ectoparasites known from freshwater fishes and other vertebrates but there is a big lacuna with regard to marine fishes. The other groups like Trematoda and Cestoda with 750 and 530 species, respectively need further exploration due to the multiplicity of hosts available in our country. Nearly 1160 species exhibit endemism in India. The value of this group is well understood by the estimates of Peters (1978) with 4-5 billion people suffering from helminth infection.

Rotifers constitute a dominant planktonic group, with 330 species, a little over 13% of the world fauna. A critical analysis of the Indian freshwater rotifera indicates that various planktonic and semi-planktonic taxa are fairly known from this country but periphytic, benthic, colonial, sesile and bdelloid rotifers are still to be much studied.

The marine meiofauna includes Gastrotricha and Kinorhyncha and are represented by 100 and 10 species respectively which account for 3.33% and 10% of the species known from the world. It is interesting to note that there is high degree of endemicity in these groups Le., 64 out of 100 species in Gatrotricha and 7 out of 10 in Kinorhyncha are endemics. There is ample scope for studying these marine groups. The groups like Sipuncula and Echiura with 35 and 43 species respectively in India account for about 24% and 34% of the world-fauna. All these groups exhibit very high biological diversity in Andaman & Nicobar group of islands, as they are oceanic in their distribution.

The nematodes constitute about 50% of all metazoa in the world and occur in every possible type of habitat, free-living or predaceous or parasitic in plants and animals. Animal parasitic nematodes numbering 1,000, and plant, soil and other nematodes 1850 account for 9.5% of the world fauna. Our knowledge on the nematode parasites in vertebrate animals is satisfactory but plant, soil and aquatic (both freshwater and marine) nematodes are poorly known; their endemicity is more than 400 species. Nematodes cause significant loss and damage to the humans, livestock, and crops. Mention may be made of filariasis, ascariasis, trichuriasis, onchocerciasis etc. Loss caused by plant parasitic nematodes is equally immense, as they damage nearly 15 % of the crops. Among plant parasitic nematodes causing extensive damage of nearly 40 million Rupees to wheat is by Anguina tritici, nearly. 12 million Rupees loss in coffee by Pratylenchlls spp. and potato disease by Globodera rostochinensis. Nematodes have also been found very useful as good model experimental animals or the basic research in nutrition, physiology, genetics, ageing etc. A few species are beneficial as biological agents; some help in maintenance of natural balance of soil and serve as indicator species. Number of families, genera and species known from India

Phylum Acanthocephala, forming nearly 29% (229 species, 54 genera, 20 families) of the world fauna (800 species) are known to occur in India. Systematic survey based on host species and their distribution is desirable. Among other minor phyla, the Phoronida and the Brachiopoda represented by 3 species each are the least known groups in India. However, the Bryozoa with 200 species is known better than the Entoprocta (10 species) or even the Chaetognatha (30 species) and the Tardigrada (30 species).

The Annelida in India constitute (840 species out of 12,700 species) about 6% of the world-fauna under 312 genera, 80 families and 3 classes. Polychaeta constitute a major group with 400 species (200 genera, 61 families) followed by Oligochaeta with 381 species (87 genera and 14 families) and Hirudinea with 59 species (25 genera and 5 families). Nearly 49 peregrine earthworm species are introduced from other geographical realms on the mainland. 42% of the leaches and 77.80% of the oligochaetes are endemic to the country, while the percentage of endemism in polychaetes is very low. Although polychaetes are comparatively well studied, knowledge of brackish water fauna is far from satisfactory. The value of annelids in soil fertility is immense and the aquatic oligochaetes retrive organic matter from sediments. Compounds extracted from leaches are from time immemorial used as remedies for throat and inflammatory swellings. Anticoagulant secretion (hirudin) is used in blood clotting experiments.

Molluscs are very ancient organisms believed to have evolved from a flatworm like ancestor during the Precambrium about 650 million years ago. Because many species secrete a shell of some sort, the fossil record is good. Different classes of molluscs have been predominant in the past and the Ammonites represent a group of Cephalopods which were extremely abundant for millions of years before they became extinct. Their close relatives the Nautiloid cephalopods were also once very successful but are now only represented in the world by one species, Nautilus.

The molluscs are of great diversity with 5072 species that account for about 8% of the world fauna. At the family level, 62.8% of the families known from the world are represented in India. The richness of the species is due to the diverse ecosystems and habitats and the table shows the species diversity at different levels.

The landfonns are exclusively confined to the class Gastropoda falling under two subclasses Prosobranchia and Pulmonata. The land operculates of India include a number of geographically significant genera such as Cyclophorous, Diplommlltina and Alycileus, which are typical of the Oriental region and have a number of endemic species, majority of them, are distributed in peninsular plains and Western Ghats. It is interesting to note that both the land and freshwater molluscs have a number of endemic genera and species. Our knowledge on the endemic marine molluscs as compared to the land and freshwater ones is far from satisfactory. 575 species of freshwater and terrestrial molluscan species are endemic to the country. The table represents the distribution of endemic forms in various zoogeographical regions of the country.

Source: Ramakrishna and Mitra, 2002 Among the molluscs, several species are of ornamental value and support a viable shell-craft industry. Several others such as giant clams (Tridllcnll spp.), oysters etc. are of food value. Windowpane oysters are a source material of aesthetic value. Out of six species of pearl oysters available in India, Pictllda fucatll is used for pearl production. The intial production on experimental basis was initiated in 1973 and hatchery production of pearl oyster seed in 1982 at CMFRI, Kochin. Commercially important species of sqUids are Lotigo uyii (Little sqUid), L. duviluceti (Indian squid), Doryteuthis siboglle (Siboga squid), D. singhlllL'tIsis (Needle squid), Lotiolus investigatoris, Sepioteuthis lessonillnll (palk-bay sqUid), Sepill phllraonis (Pharaoh cuttlefish), S. Ilculelltll (Needle cuttlefish), S. elliptiCil (Golden cuttlefish), S. prashlldi (Hooded cuttlefish), S. brevimllnll (Shotclub cuttlefish), Sepielill inermis (Spineless cuttlefish), Octopus dollfusi (Marbled octopus), O. membranllceous (Webfoot octopus), 0. lobensis (Lobed octopus), O. vulgaris (Common octopus) and Cislopus indicus (Old woman octopus). Accordiing to Appukullan et al. (2000); Kripa and Appukullan (2003), the most important shells and marine bivalves of commercial value are Terbinella pyrum (Sacred chank), Turbo marmoratus (Turban shell), T intercostals (Ribbed turban), Trochus nilotieus, T. radiatus (Top shells), Umbonium vestiarium (Bullon shell), l.Jlmbis chiragra (Spider shell), L. lambis (Scorpion shells), Cypraena monita (Cowries), Cellana radiate, Strombus canarium (Winged shells), Thais rudolphi, T bufo, Oliva gibbosa, Babylonia spirata, B. zeylanica, Cassis cornuta (Helmet shells), Chieoreus ramosus, Pleuroploca trapezium (Murex shells), Villorita eyprinoides (Black dam), Paphia malabarica (Short neck dam), Meretrix casta, M. meretrix (Yellow clams), Marcia opima (Baby dam), Mesodesma glabaratum, Sunetta seripta (Marine clam), Donax spp. (Wedge clam), Ge10ina bengalensis (Big black dam), Anandra granosa (Cockle), Placenta placenta (Windowpane oyster), Hippopus hippopus, Perna viridis (Green mussel), P. indica (Brown mussel), Pinctada fucata (Indian pearl oyster), P. margaritifera (Black lip pearl oyster), Crassostrea madrasensis (Indian backwater oyster) and Saeeostren cueullnta (Rock oyster).

Recent inclusion of marine molluscs under schedule animals (Part II Section -3 sub sections (ii) I, in the Extraordinary Gazette of India, dated 5th December, 2001) is one such step to protect and conserve several key species, which are under threat due to overexploitation, for commercial purposes. Systematic list of Molluscs included in the Schedule

The Echinodermata represented in India by 765 species (nearly 12.5% of the world fauna) give a good picture of the fauna in India, except for the deep-water echinoderms of the Indian region. 765 species are recorded of which Crinoidea with 95 species, Asteroidea with 180 species, Ophiroidea 150 species, Echinoidea with 150 species and Holothuroidea with 160 species are represented in Indian waters. Nearly 12 species of Holothuroidea are commercially very important. Beche-de-mer is the delicacy prepared from holothurians especially from Holothuria scabra, Holothurin spinifera and Bohadschia marmorata. The holothurians till recently supported a good bec'he-de-mer industry in the Gulf of Mannar of Tamil Nadu and used to earn considerable foreign exchange. Though there are prospects of the industry at Lakshadweep and Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the holothurians are included in Schedule-I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 in the interest of conservation of the ecosystem. Although the Onychophora as a group is extremely rare, it is known by a single species discovered at the foothills of the eastern Himalaya in the northeastern frontier of India.

The phylum Arthropoda is remarkable in having the largest number of classes, order, families, genera and species in India. The crustaceans group comprised mainly of penaeid prawns, non-penaeid prawns, lobsters, crabs and stomatopods (mantis shrimp, Oratosquilla nepal. India is one of the major contributors of marine crustaceans in the world market (Anon, 1982). Cmstaceans also fetch a very high price of Rs. 200 or US$ 4.3 per kg in the domestic market (Sathiadas and Hassan, 2002). The penaeid prawn fishery constitutes the backbone of the seafood export industry, being the major foreign exchange earner as well as source of livelihood for millions of fish workers. Frozen shrimp contributes about 70% (Rs. 448 crores corresponding to US$ 978,807) of India's total seafood export value and the share of capture fisheries is 59% by volume (Nandakumar and Maheswarudu, 2003). Commercial species of prawns include Penaeus indicus (Indian white prawn), P. semisulcatus (Green tiger prawn), P. monodon (Giant tiger prawn), P. merguiensis (Banana prawn), P. japonicus (Kuruma prawn), P. penicillatus (Redtail prawn), Penaeopsis jerryi, Metnpenaeus dobsoni (F1owertail prawn), M. monoceros (Speckled prawn), M. nffinis Uinga prawn), M. kutchensis (Ginger shrimp), M. breuicornis (Yellow prawn), Metapenaeopsis stridulans (Fiddler shrimp), M. nndamanensis (Rice velvet shrimp), Parapenaeopsis stylifera (Kiddi prawn), P. hardwickii (Spear prawn), P. sculptilis (Rainbow prawn), P. maxillipedo (Torpedo prawn), P. uncta (Uncta prawn), Parapenaeus longiceps (Flaming prawn), Trachypl'naellS curvirostris (Rough prawn), Solenocera crassicornis (Coastal mud prawn), S. choprai (Coastal mud prawn), S. hextii (deep sea mud shrimp), and Aristeus alcocki (Arabian red shrimp) (Kurian et al., 1976b; Nandakumar et al., 2003, NBFGR I, 2005). According to Radhakrishnan and Manisseri (2003), lobster species exported from India are Panulirus polyphagus (Mud spiny lobster), P. homarus (Scalloped spiny lobster), P.ornntus (Ornate spiny lobster) P. versicolor (Tropical rock lobster), Thenus orientalis (Shovelnosed lobster), Puent/us sewe/li (Indian Ocean lobster), and Linupurus somniosus. Besides above, Portunus sanguinolentus (Spotted crab), P. pelagicus (Reticulate crab), Charybdis ferintus (Cross crab), C. annulata and C. natator, out of these, Portunus sanguinolentus, P. pe1agicus and Charybdis feriatus are the dominant species of edible marine crabs.

Cmstacea is one of the major classes of the phylum with 2934 species, which is over 8% of those in the world, of which 501 species show endemicity. Cmstaceans have adapted themselves to live in a variety of ecological conditions; more abundant in marine environment than in freshwater or land. Diversity is more in the rocky intertidal zone along the coastal and coral reef ecosystems. Most of the burrowing forms live in sandy substratum, as they support a variety of interstitial fauna. The major habitats of crustacea are as given below :

The Arachnida, another major class is known by 5818 species (2623 endemic species), being nearly 8% of the world fauna. Soil mites occur abundantly in any soil rich with litter and organic debris and hence common in forest soil, agricultural land. The Chilopoda and the Diplopoda with 100 and 162 species are only over 3% and 2%, respectively of the fauna in the world. The other groups under the Arthropoda except the Insecta are poorly known in our country. The Xiphosurans is of special interest with 2 species known from India. All these groups need special attention because much remains to be known about them. There is high degree of endemism among them but our knowledge is limited to the Crustacea, the Insecta and the Arachnida only despite incomplete knowledge about their total fauna. IUCN has identified 7 species of diaptomous copepods (Among Crustacea), a species of coconut crab (Birgus latro) and two species of Arachnida (Carcinoscorpius rotundicauda and Tacllyplells gigas) as threatened animals.

Crustaceans identified in respect of the medicinal properties in Ayurveda, Unani and Sidda are the Scylla SL'rrnta with two formulations ('Arq-e-Sartan' and 'Safllf-e-Sartan') used in curing constipation, Rakta Pitta, headache, T.B., chronic cough, anaemia, sexual debility, obstructed micturition, general debility, neurological disorders. Even the freshwater prawns is used in unani and has the property for curing constipation and also possesses nutrient, blood purifying, anti-anthelmintic, aphrodisiac, cardiotonic and uterotonic properties. Dried prawn is used as Surma for the treatment of night blindness. It is mixed with oil to form a useful application in inflammation, rheumatism, gout, anti-inflammatory, anthelmintic, aphrodisiac, haematinic and uterotonic diseases.

The scorpion (Hl'drurus hirslltlls) acts as anti-poisoning, stimulant, anti-tussive and anti-leprotic agent in unani. Dried scorpions are pulverised and mixed with vinegar for application on vitiligo, leucoderma and alopecia. Scorpion ash is useful in curing chronic cough, renal and cystic calculi, healing necrotic wounds and piles. Spiders also have a very significant role to play in the ecology by being exclusively predatory (Wise, 1993) and thereby regulate insect populations. All spiders are venomous but only a few species are venomous enough to harm humans. However, the venom of some spiders is useful in study of neuromuscular and cardiac pharmacology. II is likely that spider silk will be the material of the future as its silk is the toughest material (Tensile strength) known. The gene for the silk of Nephila maculata has been cloned and the spinning technology needs to be perfected. The spider (Lactrodectus mactans mactans) acts as styptic and healing agent. It is anti-pyretic and analgesic. IlI/us terrestris (Millipede) the whole body is used in unani and acts as analgesic and anti-leprotic.

Insect Resource

Insects as a group of animals are the largest of all in the world. They out number not only as species but also as individuals of the species. They occur almost everywhere from high mountains to the sea, and from the hot desert to the cold ice-water at the extreme, and all these cause them to flourish extremely wen with 8,67,391 species that account nearly for 80% of the total animal species in the world. This high biodiversity among insects lies in their characteristics like size, presence of chitinous exoskeleton, high fecundity, proficiency to feed on variety of materials, capability of water retention, capacity for flight and dispersal, etc., that help them to survive in different ecosystems with success. Researchers find more than 5,000 new species every year, mainly insects and above all Coleoptera, an order of insect that comprises the beetles, forming the largest order of animals on the earth, and which makes up almost one fourth of all known species.

Insects so far known in India are grouped in 27 orders, of which 4 are apterygotes and the remaining 23 are pterygotes. Recently, a new order has been erected, thus making the number 28. Among apterygotes in India, the Collembola is known better than the other 3 groups. It is represented by 210 species (above 4.0% of the world fauna) under 86 genera as against 451 genera in the world. The other 3 groups, viz., Thysanura, Diplura and Protura are known by 31 species (nearly 2.5%) under 16 genera, 16 species (4.5%) under 7 genera and 20 species (nearly 7.7%) under 8 genera, respectively. It may be mentioned that the endemism is quite remarkable in the groups with 22 genera and 45 species in the Collembola, 12 genera and 23 species in the Thysanura, 3 genera and 12 species in the Diplura, and 4 genera and 16 species in the Protura. Indeed, our knowledge on the Indian apterygote groups is poor and therefore, much more attention requires to be paid in order to reveal the tremendous biodiversity among them. Odonata is an economically and ecologically important group of insects, as they act as predators of flies, mosquitoes and moths besides being a consumer link in the aquatic food chain. The diversity of the group being comparatively enormous with nearly 449 species (8.96% of the total fauna of the world), and equally 23% of the fauna (115 species) are endemic to the country.

The groups' viz., collembola, diplura, protura and thysanura form the soil micro arlhropods. Soil is a finite and nonrenewable resource. Soil degradation is caused by adverse changes in the soil's physical, chemical and biological processes. Similarly, the dead wood or a fallen tree in a forest ecosystem is an important aspect in the forest ecology, as they influence the carbon cycle, forest soil fertility, and water holding capacity, water runoff, besides being a home for a variety of life forms. Species richness, succession of insect fauna and fungal-insect mutualism are some of the areas that need to be looked into. Among the soil fauna, mention may be made of collembola, dermaptera, embioptera, orthoptera (especially gryllotalpidae, tetrigidae), blattaria, isoptera, hymenoptera (formicidae), coleoptera (carabidae, staphylinidae) and a few others. Collembola appear to show a trend of higher diversity in temperate regions than in the tropiCS. Concentration of dermaptera in the subcontinent is higher than in many other tropical countries. Literature on the soil dwelling orthoptera is partial and fragmented. Gryllotalpidae attain the status of pest in root crops. Many species are phenotypically similar, but many may be genetically isolated crypto species awaiting recognition. Similarly, the taxonomy of the tetrigidae is a subject of discussion, as it requires determination of many closely related species. Many of the soil dwelling isoptera provide extensive cohabiting fauna in their nests ranging from commensals to symbionts, parasites and specialist predators. Carabidae, a potential and valuable group for analysing the soil faunal distribution how~ver lacks a definite record of speciation in tiger beetles in the country (e.g., subfamily: Cicendilinae).

The biological diversity of coleopteran is enormous represented by nearly 15,500 species so far known (nearly 4. 42 % of the world), representing nearly one tenth of those existing today. The beetles are known for their useful and harmful values, besides being the environmental indicators monitoring the health of the ecosystem. It is a well-established fact that the luminocity of the fireflies (Lampyridae), poisonous properties of the Chrysomelidae and Carabidae and the brilliant colouration of Bupestridae have attracted the attention of the primitive people. Besides known for their diversity, coleopterans are equally known for their plasticity from the point of dispersal efficiency. A few genera belonging to Carabidae, Cebrionidae, Drilidae, Cantharidae, Tenebrionidae, and Curculionidae exhibit flightless female forms. However, certain other genera belonging to Chrysomelidae, Curculionidae and Carabidae exhibit longlived but flightless forms and their larva donot develop in the dead timber. A third category known in the coleopterans are those, short lived but exhibits wide dispersal capaCity due to their frequent flying adult forms (Scarabaeidae, Cantharidae, Cicindelidae, Melyridae, Mordellidae, Oedermeridae, Cererabicidae). Yet another category of coleopterans represented by the members belonging to Cerculionidae and Cerambicidae both adults and larvae live on dead timber and have the capacity to live on the logs drifted on high seas. The last category of copleopteran insects are known as 'Aerial plankton" as they are small and disperses over a long distance through aerial currents. In terms of value of the taxon, more than 300 species are noted pests of the field crops, forest timbers and stored products. Many species belonging to 5i1phidae, Trogidae, 5carabaeidae, Dermestidae acts as scavengers feeding on dead tissues of animals.

Of the pterygotes, Coleoptera is the largest of all the orders and is known by 15,500 species (nearly 4.5% of the world fauna), followed by the Lepidoptera with 15,000 species (over 10.5%), the Hymenoptera with 10,000 species (over 8%), the Hemiptera with 6,556 species (over 8.20%) and the Diptera with 6,093 species (over 6.0%). As regards the endemic species of these groups in India, it is estimated that the Hymenoptera contains 9,000 species and 516 genera in 65 families, the Coleoptera 3,100 species and 923 genera in 104 families, the Hemiptera 2,421 species and 579 genera in 77 families, the Diptera 2,135 species and 107 genera in 87 families and the Lepidoptera 1,500 species and 100 genera in 84 families.

Out of 285 genera and about 3677 species distributed all over the world, aquatic hemipteran fauna in India is represented by 80 genera and about 279 species under 17 major families (Thirumalai, 1999,2(03). The water bugs that are associated with water are divided into Gerromorpha or semi-aquatic bugs, Nepomorpha or truly aquatic bugs and Leptopodomorpha or shore bugs. The Infraorder Gerromorpha comprises of semi-aquatic bugs characterised by long conspicuous antennae, longer than head and inserted in front of eyes. They are distributed in all kinds of climatic zones, except the coldest and driest parts. This infraorder contains 8 families namely, Gerridae, Veliidae, Hydrometridae, Mesoveliidae, Hebridae, Macroveliidae, Paraphrynoveliidae and Hermatobatidae of which the last three families are not represented in India. So far 131 species under 45 genera or 8.7% of the world fauna of Gerromorpha are known from the country.

The infraorder Nepomorpha includes the truly aquatic bugs, as well as two littoral families, Gelastocoridae and Ochteridae all characterizes by short antenna that are usually hidden. They are essentially predaceous, although many corixids are omnivorous. There are 134 genera and about 1884 species distributed all over the world except in Antarctica (Polhemus et al., 1995).33 genera and 140 species assigned to 10 families of Nepomorpha are known from India, which equals to 7.2% of the world fauna. Out of these 5 major families, Belostomatidae, Corixidae, Naucoridae, Nepidae and Notonectidae are totally aquatic, leaving water during their migratory phase. The Infraorder Leptopodomorpha contains bugs that are ground dwelling and predacious that are characterised by long antennae. They are distributed in boreal, temperate, subtropical zones and associated with littoral habitats, including marine intertidal zones where they regularly undergo submergence, while a few are partial or truly terrestrial and xerothermic habitats are may even occur in caves. Globally 310 species and 36 genera are known accommodated in 4 families, out of which 10 species and 3 genera in 2 families are so far recorded from India.

Out of 32 political divisions, no authentic report of the group Nepomorpha from 4 divisions are known. Among the north-eastern states, there is no record of this group from Tripura, irrespective of report 2 species of semi aquatic bugs. All the known 9 families occur in West Bengal, followed by Kerala, Tamilnadu and Maharashtra (8 families each). The states of Gujarat, Haryana, Nagaland have 1 family each The highest number of species namely, 53 species accommodated in 15 genera is from Tamilnadu followed by West Bengal which harbours 52 species under 18 genera. Further, more than 55% of Nepomorpha are found in the states where Western Ghats run through. Studies on the distribution of Nepomorpha from Indian part Himalaya indicate that more than 65% of Indian species are represented in this area (Thirumalai, 2002b). The distribution of the bugs in the Himalayan states is given in Fig. The similar 9 species in Arunachal Pradesh out of 36 from Assam, suggests the two-way movements and admixture of fauna between Indian peninsula, Indo-Chinese and Malayan elements there.

Out of the 32 political divisions recognised in the Indian Union,S families (Hebridae, Hydrometridae, Gerridae, Mesoveliidae and Velidae) occur in Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Punjab, Tamilnadu, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal; 4 families (Hydrometridae, Gerridae, Mesoveliidae and Veliidae) in Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Bihar, Chandigarh, Manipur Orissa and Rajasthan; 3 families in Assam (Hydrometridae, Gerridae and Veliidae), Meghalaya, Punjab, Sikkim (Hebridae, Gerridae and Veliidae) and Pondicherry (Hydrometridae, Gerridae and Mesoveliidae); 2 families in Delhi, Goa, Jammu & Kashmir, Madhya Pradesh, Tripura (Gerridae and Veliidae) and Rajasthan (Hydrometridae and Gerridae); and 1 family in, Haryana (Gerridae), Gujarat (Hydrometridae) and Mizoram (Veliidae). There is no authentic record of Gerromorpha from the remaining 4 political divisions (Thirumalai 2002a, 2004; Thirumalai et al., 2002 a & b ). The distribution of Gerromorpha species so far known from India is presented in the Fig. Out of 131 species so far recorded, the highest number of species namely 42, accommodated in 25 genera occurs in Tamilnadu followed by Karnataka which harbours 39 species under 26 genera. Further, it is interesting to note that more than 50% of Gerromorpha are found in the states where Western Ghats run through. This is perhaps due to the complex assemblage of ecosystems that harbour diverse faunal constituents (Thirumalai and Krishnan, 2000).

The butterflies, besides their aesthetic value, form an important object of display in natural history museums. The ecological significance of this group need not be underestimated, as their immature stages or caterpil1ars are largely herbivorous and form the primary consumer in the ecosystem. Butterflies are in tum fed upon by higher groups of organism such as amphibians, birds, lizards and other groups and thus form a link in the food web, besides being excellent pollinators. The Government of India has already extended legal protection to the group Lopidoptera under Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 by including nearly 120 species and subspecies of butterflies and moths in Schedule-I and nearly 292 species and subspecies under Schedule -n. As butterflies perform the dual role in generating public awareness Faunal Rtsourct5 in [ndill on nature conservation and the need for in-situ conservation of endangered and threatened species, butterfly farming/breeding programmes have become important recently. Besides conservation, butterfly farming is an alternative source to replenish the depleted population and to provide material for scientific study. In this regard, nutrition, larval food plants, nectar plants, breeding, oviposition, egg care, larval rearing, pupation etc., are important while maintaining the captive population. List of Lepidoptera included under Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 Schedule-I Part: IV

Family AMATHUSILIDAE 1 Discophora deo deo Duffer, Banded 2 Discophora sondaica mllscina Duffer, Common 3 Fal/nis fnunllia fnllnuloides Pallid fauna Family DANIDAE

4. Dlllmlls galltama galltamoides Tigers 1 Euploen crameri nicevillei Crow, Spotted Black 2 Euploen midamus roepstorfti Crow, Blue spotted Family LYCAENIDAE 3 Allotinus drumila Darkie, Crenulate/Great 4 Allotinlls fabius penormis Angled Darkie 5 Amblopala avidiena Hairstreak/Chinese

10. Amblypodia nee arata Leaf blue

11. Amblypodia nlea constanceae Rosy Oakblue

12. Amblypodia ammonariel Malayan Bushblue

13. Amblypodia nrvina ardea Purple brown tailless Oakblue

14. Amblypodia comica Comic Oakblue

15. Amblypodia opalina Opal Oakblue

15. Amblypodia zeta Andaman tailless Oakblue

17. Biduanda melis cyana Blue Posy

18. Cal/ophrys leechii Hairstreak, Ferruginosus

19. Castnlius rosimon alarbus Pierrot, Common

20. Charana cephies Mandar in Blue, Cachar

21. Chlioria othona Tit! Orchid

22. Deudoryx epijnrbl/s ainatius Cornelian Scarce

23. Everes moorei Cupid, Moore's

24. Gerydus biggsii Bigg's Brownie

58. Dillpn morgiana Emperor, Golden 59. Doleschnllin bisaltidne andnmnnn Autumn leaf

60. Eribloea morel sandakanlls Malayan Nawab

61. Eulaceura manipurensis Emperor, TyUer's

62. Euthnlia dllrga splendens Barons/ Connis/Duchesses

63. Euthalia iva Duke, Grand

64. Euthnlia khnmn curvifnscia Duke, Naga

65. Euthalia tellihinia Baron, Blue

66. Helcyra hemina Emperor white

67. Hypolimnas missipus Eggfly, Danaid

68. Limenitis austenia puppurascens Commodore, Grey

69. Limenitis zulema Admirals

70. Melitnen shnndura Fritillaries/Silverstripes

71. Neptis nnti/ope Sailer, variegated

72. Neptis aspasia Sailer/ Great Hockeystic

73. Neptis columelln kankena Sailer. Shortbanded

74. Neptis cydippe kirbariensis Sailer, Chinese yellow

75. Neptis ebusn ebusn Sailer/ lascar

76. Neptis jllmbah binghami Sailer, Chestnut-streaked

77. Neptis manasa Sailer, Pale Hockeystic

78. Neptis nyctells Sailer, Hockeystic

79. Neptis poona Lascar, TyUer's

80. Neptis sankara nar Sailer, Broadbanded

81. Panthoporin jinn jina Bhutan Sergeant

82. Panthoporia reta moorei Malay staff Sergeant

83. Prothoc franckii regalis Begum Blue

84. Snsakia funebris Empress

85. Sophisa chnndra Courtier, Eastern

86. Symbrenthin silann Jester, Scarce

87. Venessa antiopa yedllnula Admirables Family PAPILIONIDAE

88. Chilasa elytea elytea of commixtus Common mime

89. Papilio elephenor Spangle yellow crested

90. Papi/io /iomedon Swallotail, Malabar banded

Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 : Schedule-II Part-II

Family DANAIDAE Family NYMPHALIDAE Family SATYRIDAE 1. Euploea melanoleuea Adolias eyanipardus Anlocl'ra brahminlls 2. Ellploea midamlls rogenhofrr Adolias dirtea Cyllogenes sllradeva Family ERYCINIDAE Adolias khasiana Elymnias malelas milamba 1 Abisara kausambi Apatura ehevana E/ymnias vasudeva 2 Dodona adonira Apatllra parvata Erebia ananda suroia 3 Dodona dipoea Apatllra sordida Erebia hygriva 4 Dodona egeon Apatura II/upi f10renciae Erebia kalinda ka/inda

7. Libythea lepita ArX'llnnis adippe pallida Erebia mani mani Family HESPERIDAE Argynnis altissima Erebia seanda opima 1 Baoris phidippina Argynnis clara clara Erites falcipennis 2 Bebasa sena Argynnis pales haria Hipparehis hoydenrekhi shandura

10. Halpe homo/ea Atella aldope Lethe atkinsoni Family INOPEPLIDAE Ca/inaga budha Brahman Lethe baladeva

11. Inopeplus albonatlls Charaxes aristogiton Lethe brisanda Family LYCAENIDAE Charaxes karruba Lethe goa/para goa/para

12. Allotinlls sllbviolaeeous Charaxes mannax Lethe insana insane manyehus 13. Amblypodia aenea Charaxes fabius Lethe ja/aurida su/phurells 14. Amblypodia agaba Aurelia Charaxes po/yxena heman Lethe karuba 15. Amblypodia agrata Cheroonesia rahria Lethe latiaris latiaris rahroides 16. Amblypodia a/esia Cyristes cloees Lethe moelleri moelleri 17. Amb/ypodia apidanlls Diagora persimilis Lethe naga naga ahamus 18. Amblypodia areste areste Do/ischallia bisaltidae Lethe nicetella ma/abariea 19. Amb/ypodia bazaloides Eriboea athames Lethe plliaha andamaniclIs 20. Amblypodia camdeo Eriboea de/phis Lethe scandal 21. Amblypodia ellisi Eriboea dolen Lethe serbonis 22. Amblypodia flllla ignara Eriboea hareoea lissainei Lethe siderea 23. Amblypodia genesa watsoni Eriplls eonsimilis Lethe sincrix 24. Amblypodia paraganesa Equipus halitherses Lethe tristigmata zephl/reeta 25. Amblypodia paralea EI/thnlia anosia Lethe violaceoticta kanjupkula 26. Amblypodia silhetensis Euthnlia eocytl/s Lethe visrava 27. Amblypodia sl/ffl/se suffuse Euthalia duda Lethe yama 28. Amblypodin yendava EI/thalia durga durga .Lethe yama 29. Apharitis lilacinus Ellthnlia evalina landabilis Maniola davendra davendra 30. Araotes lapithis Euthalia franciae Melanites zitenel/s 31. Artipe eryx Euthalia garl/da aeontills Mycalesis adamsoni 32. Bindahara phocides Ellthalia lepidea Myealesis anaxias 33. Bothrinia chenneI/ia EI/thalia merta eriphyla Mycalesis quotama ehakma 34. Castalills roxus manluena Ellthalia nara nara Myealesis heri 35. Catapocilma elegans myostina EI/thalia patala taooana Myealesis lepchn bethnmi 36. Charana jalindra EI/thnlia tel/ta Myealesis malsarida 37. ChetireI/a trrmcipennis Horona marathlls Mycalesis mestra andamana 38. Chliaria kina Hypolimnas missippus Myealesis misenus 39. Deudoryx hypargyria Hypolimnas polynice Mycalesis mystes gaetlllia birmana 40. Enchrysops enejus KaI/irna albofasciata Mycalesis suavolens 41. Everes kala KaI/irna philarehl/S Neorina hilda horsefieldi 42. HelipphoTlls androcles Lirnenitis aI/stenia Oeneis budha ql/al/rhwaliea moorei austenia 43. Horage onyx Lirnenites damava Parantirhoea marshali 44. Horage viola Limenites dl/du Pararge eversmanni cashmirensis 45. Hypolyeaena nilgirica Me/itaea robertsi IlIkto Pararge maerula maerllla 46. Hypolyeaena theclodies Neptis aurelia Ragadia crislda crito nieobariea 47. Imota rochnna boswelliana Neptis anjana nashona Rhnpieera sttriens kabTlla 48. Jamides alectokandulana Neptis magadh khasiana Ypthima bolaniea 49. Jamides celeodus pl/m Neptis nandina hamsoni Ypthima lyel/s lycl/s 50. Jamides coender Neptis namyana Ypthima mathom mathora 51. Jamides kankena Neptis mdha radha Ypthima similes affectata 52. Lmnpides boetieus Neptis soma Zipotis saitis 53. Lilacea alboeaemlea Neptis zaida RAMAKRISHNA and ALFRED: Faunal Resource Analysis

54. Lilacea atroguttata Neurosigma dOl/blodayi Schedule -III doublodayi

Pantoporia kanwa phorkys Pantoporia Icsl/ra ksura Pantoporia larymna siamensis Pantoporia pravara ael/tipennis Pantoporia ranga Parthenos SI/Ivia Penthema lisarda Symbrenthia niphanda Vanesa egea agnieula Vanesa lalbum NIL Schedule -IV Family DANAIDAE fl/ploca core simI/latrix Euploca crasSll Euploea diodetianus ramSllyi fuploca muleiber Family HESPERILIDAE Vanesa polychloros fervida Baoris fa"i VeneSll parasoides dohertyi Hasora vitta VeneSll urticoe riwma Family PAILIONIDAE Bhutanitis liderdalei liderdalei Chi/asa epycides epycides Chi/aSll paradoxa telearehus Chi/aSll slateri slateri Graphium aristeus anticrates Graphil/m arycles arycles Graphium eurypylus maCTonil/s Graphium evemon albociliates Graphium gyas gyas Graphium megarus megarus Papilio bootes Papilio budha Papilio juscus andamanicl/s Hyarotis adrastus Oriens concinna Pelopidas assamensis Pelopidas sin~."sis Polytrema discreta Polytrema rubicans Thoressa horiorei Family LYCAENIDAE Tarueus ananda Family NYMPHALIDAE Euthalia lubentina Family PIERIDAE RAMAKRISHNA and ALFRED: Fallnal Resollrce Analysis

82. Rnpala bllxarin Papilio machaon <'ertityi Aporia agathon ariaca

83. Rnpala chandrana chandrana Papilio mayo Appias Ibythea

84. Rnpala nasaka Parnassills charltonil/s Appias nero galba charltonills

85. Rnpala refulgens Parnassius epaphlls Prioneris sita hillensis

86. Rapala rubida Parnassills jacqllemonti jacql/emonti

87. Rnpnla scintilla Polydorus latreillei kabrua

88. Rnpnla sphinx sphinx Polydorus plutonills tytleri

89. Rnpala vanma Teinopalplls imperialis imperialis

90. Spindasis elima elima Familv PIERIDAE

91. Spindasis lohita Aporia nebellica

92. Spindasis nipalicl/s Appias albina darada

93. Sal/sa lisides Appias indra shiva

94. Surendra todara Appias Iycinda latifasciata

95. Tajurin albipalga Appins wardi

96. Tajl/rin cippl/s cippus Baltia bl/tleri butleri

97. Tajuria culta Cepora nadian remba

98. Tajl/ria diaeus Cepora nerissa dapha

99. Tajllria illl/rgiodes Colias ecocandiae hindl/cuciea

100. Tajl/ria illl/rgis Colias eogene

101. Tajuria jl/n!lala andamanica Colias ladakensis

102. Tajl/ria melastigma Colias stoliczkana Miranda

103. Tajl/ria sebonga Delias lativitta

104. Tajl/ria thlluia Dercas lycorias

105. Taiuria Imina istroides EI/chloe charlonin II/cilla

106. Tarl/cl/s callinara ElIn'ma andersoni ormistoni

107. Taruells dharta Metaporia agathon

108. Thadllka mlliticaudata kanara Pieris deota

109. Thecla ataxlls ataxlls Pontia ehloridiee alipina

110. Thecla bitel Saletara panda chrysea

111. Thecla ieana Valeria avatar avatar

112. Thecla jakamensis

113. Thecla kabreea

114. Thecla khasia

115. Thecla kirberiensis

Farlnal Rt'Sol/rct's in Indill

The family Tipulidae is the largest of all the families in the order Diptera and is represented by 1,330 species under 60 genera, of which over 1,200 species were described during 1918-1976. The tipulid fauna is quite significant in India since it accounts for about 50% of the nematocerans and nearly 22% of the .entire diptera fauna known so far from the country. Exorista bombycis: The uzi fly (Diptera : Tachinidae) is a serious endo-larval parasitoid of the silkworm, Bombyx mori and is estimated to cause around 10-20% crop loss. Though it occurs throughout the year, maximum incidence is from August to November. Black scar on the body of parasitized silkworm is the main symptom.

Besides the above major groups, the Orthoptera is ranked below with over 1750 species that account for over 10% of the fauna in the world. There are 77 endemic genera and over 200 species in this order. It is mentionable that maximum diversity of these insects is encountered in the Terai and Dooars areas of the Himalaya, tropical rain forest areas of northeastern India, and Nilgiri, Wynad and Silent Valley areas of south India. It is a mailer of concern that the encroachment by man into the grassland habitats of these insects for agricultural and industrial purposes leads to a considerable reduction in the populations and species. There are 2 orders, viz., the Trichoptera and the Thysanoptera that register the number of species below 1,000 but over 500 in that, the former comprises 812 species under 112 genera and the latter 693 species under 249 genera. However, the number of endemic species is quite high in comparison to the total species number. The endemism in case of the Trichoptera with 650 species and of the Thysanoptera with 520 species is a matter of satisfaction. It is extremely difficult at this stage to estimate the actual diversity unless systematic exploration is undertaken all over the country.

The following 5 orders, viz., the Odonata with 499 species under 139 genera, the Phthiraptera with 400 species under 85 genera, the Neuroptera with 335 species under 125 genera, the Dermaptera with 320 species under 74 genera and the Isoptera with 253 species under 54 genera exhibit the number of species below 500 but above 200. Indeed, a good endemicity is on record as the Odonata with 115 species, the Phthiraptera with 16 species, the Neuroptera with 262 species, the Dermaptera with 117 species and the Isoptera with 170 species despite impoverished species population size of these groups of insects as opined by the leading workers. There are 5 other groups of insects that are known by the species below 200 but above 100. The Blallaria are represented by 186 (nearly 4.0% of the world fauna), followed by the Mantodea with 162 species (a little over 7.0%), the Phasmida with 146 species (nearly 6.5%), the Plecoptera with 113 species (nearly 5.5%) and the Ephemeroptera with only 106 species (nearly 5.0%) that includes 60, 86, 70, 66 and 72 species, respectively as endemic elements of these groups in India. The fauna of each of the 5 remaining orders, Le., the Psocoptera,-the Siphonaptera, the Embioptera, the Mecoptera and the Strepsiptera are insignificantly known by the species below 100 numbering 90 species (over 3.0%), 52 species (over 2.5%), 33 species (16.5%), 15 species (over 4.0%) and 18 species (over 3.0%), respectively. .

India by virtue of her very rich evergreen and subtropical vegetation in the Himalaya up to Assam hills, Eastern and Western Ghats, and the adjoining areas has a highly rich fauna of coleoptera, which is not adequately explored. Perhaps the number of species known would be much less than half of the existing at present. It is evident that the lepidopterous fauna is much more concentrated in the eastern Himalaya as far as the Myanmar border than in the other parts of the country, such as, the western Himalaya, southern India, the plateau, and the oceanic islands. Indeed, the microlepidopterous fauna as well as several families of moths like Castniidae, Neopseustidae, etc. are poorly known. On the basis of available information it may be presumed that about 20-60% lepidopterans still await discovery. Major concentration of hymenopterous species is in the hilly and densely forested areas of the country and it is estimated that nearly 80 -85% of the species remain to be explored from these areas. A great diversity of hemipterous insects is found both in the eastern and the western Himalaya, and the Assam hills but the fauna is much less in the Indian peninsula, and the Gangetic and Indus plains. In fact, aphids attracted much more attention than several other groups. Likewise the Himalayan belt and the Assam hills exhibit maximum concentration of the dipterous insects both qualitatively and quantitatively despite their overwhelming occurrence in other hilly areas also along side plains with variegated vegetation. It is tme that the known fauna is far from satisfactory and it is estimated that a number of species still remain undiscovered.

In reality, India is quite rich in her vast faunal wealth and this richness largely depends upon the splendid floral diversity of the country. With the change of vegetation under the influence of physico-chemical factors prevaling in different zones of the country, the fauna has taken a shape of integrity with all kinds of innate characteristics of their own. Nature has been taking care and maintaining the equilibrium both in the plant and animal kingdoms in her own way. Man being a supreme creation of Nature must obey her by looking after her wonderful artistic creation on the earth. Soil and water quality, types of vegetation, humidity and rainfall, variations of temperature, etc., are the major parameters that influence the distribution of Insects in India. The eastern Himalayas and the Assam hills in the northeast India with tropical evergreen forests form a paradise of maximum number of species and populations of species. The western Himalaya extending from Kashmir to Ullar Pradesh through Himachal Pradesh is rich in insects. In these areas, the fauna is varied, colourful and plentiful as well as preponderant with rare species. It may be mentioned that some localities in the areas, such as Khasi Hills, Sikkim,

Darjeeling, Simla and Mussoorie are the well-known type localities of a good number of species including, some unique ones. Likewise, the hills of south India viz., Nilgiri, Anamalai, Palni and Cardamon hills, Malabar and Coorg etc. along with the rest of Western Ghats have provided suitable habitats for many insects of immense interest. On the other hand, the Great Indian Desert exhibits minimum number of species with little population size because of adverse vital conditions for certain groups of insects. Although the insect fauna in the above areas are fairly known, Ihere are still areas like Pangi valley of Himachal Pradesh, valley of Flowers in Uttar Pradesh, Neora Valley of West Bengal, selecled pockets of Western Ghats and the border slales in the northeastern India where Ihe fauna remains to be adequately explored. No. of families and species of insects in India Updated: January, 2006 Insects are a large group among the animal kingdom, includes highest number of orders, families, genera, and species. The table shown below is indicative of the enormity of the family, genera and species in a single order such as Coleoptera and Diptera. Coleoptera represent the largest group of organisms at the order, family and species level. Equally true that they exhibit habitat diversity under bark, stone tunnel, soil, flowers, fruits, fresh and estuarine waterbodies as well as even on other animals such as nests of mammals, birds, ants and termites. Status of Indian Coleoptera vis-a-vis world

Sourct : P.T. Cherian, C. Radhakrishnan, R.M. Sharma, G. Thirumalai (pers. COOUl.) Dipteran vectors The genus Culicoides Latreille, of tribe Culicoidini of subfamily Ceratopogoninae, is by far the largest genus of 1210 extant and 37 extinct species globally and those species have been accommodated in more than 40 species groups of 29 subgenera. The species normally encountered are Culicoides distinclus; C. brevitarsis; C certus; C. dLfinitl/s; C. II/hillS; C. himnlayae; C. imicola; C. inexploratus; C. jacobsoni; C. odious and several other species. Through their painful bites that may cause serious type of allergic dermatitis, Culicoides may retard the importance of tourist spots or residential areas or reduce the output of poultry and farm animals. Species of biting midges are found to be actual or pot6\rial vectors of disease pathogens in man and other animals, including poultry and wild birds of which transmission of Bluetongue Virus (BTV) in domestic and wild ruminants is of prime importance even in India.

Aedes aegypticauses Dengue fever; A. albopictus causes Dengue and Yellow fever; Anopheles subpictus, A. stephensi transmits malaria; viral disease is transmitted by both nymphs and adults of Bemisia tabaci; Circulifer tenellus is a vector of curly top virus. Culex quinquefasciatus adults are generally active only during the warmer months; they usually attack both indoors and outdoors humans towards the middle of the night, but are often more attracted to birds (e.g. poultry) and causes encephalitis. Franklinielln schultzei causes viral disease by premature dropping of flowers. Apical parts of shoots show retarded growth; flattening and crinkling of leaves and leaves become dark by Maconellicoccus hirsutus. Both nymphs and adults desap the mulbery plant. Myzus ptrsicae commonly known as Potato leaf rolls causes viral disease in older leaves as they tum yellow and wilt and die prematurely. Nephotettix virescens is a Rice Tango virus. Vector of Sesame phyllody, caused by MLO; it also attacks Bengal-gram, sunhemp and turnip (Orosius albicinctus). Dipetran Pollinators: lschiodon scuterllaris (Cassia tora plant); Apis mellifrra and Apis dorsata (Brassica oleoracea, Litchi chinensis, Mangifera indica); Apis f10ria (Emblica officinalis); Apiscerana (Almond, Cherrys); Petrorosea nigrofemorata (Coriandrum sativum); Exoprosopa insulata and Petrorosea albofulva (Solanum melongina, Lycopersicom esculentum); Chrysomya megacephola (Tectono grandis) are some of the dipteran pollinators.

AgricuIturod pests: Diptera : Abgrallaspi cyanophylli infects leaves and fruits; Acritochaetll excisa• on tomato and mango plant; the lepidoptera viz., Acanthopsyche bipars attacks cardamom. Among Acarina, Acaphylla theae causes damage to tea leaves; Auria Iycopersici on tomato; A. janata on grapevine, rose, mango, pomegranate and castor. A. styx damages gingely, grapevine, mango, Acherontia Inchesis affects teak and Aconurella indil:ll damages groundnut.

Dipteran Research: By the end of 1984, 62 genera and 2,822 described species of this family Drosophilidae were known worldwide, and at least 4,000 species were predicted to exist (Wheeler, 1986). Indian diversity of the family accourits' to 112 species of 13 genera. The Drosophila melanogaster (the so-called fruit fly), a dipteran insect becarne.a favourite "model" organism for genetics research. The giant ("polytene") chromosomes in the salivary (and other) glands of the mature larvae, the chromosomes shOWing far more structural detail than any normal chromosomes, and are present during interphase when chromosomes are normally invisible, are some of major facts being used as an experimentod animal in research. Besides these, the circadian rhythms, foraging behavior, and genetic controls over the building of wings, legs, and eyes are the major factors. The Drosophila genome sequence was published in the issue of Science (March 24, 2000). The researchers report that they have sequenced 97 to 98 percent of the genome and the size of the genome is about 165 million bases and contains and estimated 14,000 genes (by comparison, the human genome has 3,300 million bases and may have about 30,000 genes; yeast has about 5800 genes in 13.5 million bases). The genetic sequence database is accessible to scientists worldwide through Genebank, the National Institutes of Health, USA. In recent years, a variety of genome projects have successfully employed high throughput methods 10 rapidly and reliably generate large numbers of sequences.. As a result, wealth of characters is now readily available to the molecular systematist. Many systematists have begun to take a "phylogenomic" approach by using genomic information to infer phylogenetiC relationships. This family is an excellent model system for genomic studies because the entire sequence of Drosophila melanogaster is now completed and that'of a second drosophilid, D. pselldoobscura, is nearing completion.

Endemicity In Insects

In view of several unexplored or under explored areas of the country and not well worked out orders of insects, the picture of endemism is far from complete. Many of the earlier records are from literature, which need to be confirmed through faunistic surveys. No. of endemic genera and species of insects in India

Note: (0) indicates lack of knowledge. (Sol/rce : ZSI publications) THREAT Some insects groups in India now included in the revised list of Schedules to the Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972, which have come into force from 2.10.1980. are shown below. This is due to the fact many groups exhibit rarity due to environmental degradation, deforestation and application of agrochemicals. In contrast to the Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972, IUCN (2002) identified 12 species of insects as threatened, among them, 2 species as critical viz., Hnematopinus oliveri (Pygmyhog sucking lice) and Bllnnagomphlls benghalensis.

Species of Coleoptera under Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 Schedule-II Part-II

Introduced Species

A number of insect species have been introduced in the country knOWingly or unknowingly; some insects have been imported for the biological conlrol of some oUler insect pests and weeds. The lantana bug, Telionenia scrllplliosa (Hemiptera) is one of the early examples of import of insects in India. This species was introduced about 60 years ago for the control of lantana bushes. However, the insect was found to be a threat to the teak plants as well, hence, its culture was stopped but with in the next few decades it has spread over a major part of country. The erstwhile Indian station of the Commonwealth Institute of Biological Control (Now known as Project Directorate of Biological Control, Bangalore) introduced a number of parasitic Hymenopteran species and some ladybird beetles for the control of several coccid and aphid pests. Introduced hymenopteran species belong to the families Trichogrammatidae, Aphelinidae, Entophidae and Pteromalidae. Encyrtid hymenopterans also reached different parts of the country as coccid and mealy bug parasites.

There were considerable introductions of cockroaches in India. Several species including some well known pests' species, e.g., Blatta orientalis, Periplaneta amt7icana, BlaUdla germanica and B. hllmbertiana were introduced through human agency and have established in different parts of India. Of the 50 introduced species of termites in the globe, only two species viz., Cryptotermes dlldleyi, a species which originated in the Oriental Region, has been introduced in lower Bengal and Orissa and Cryptotermus btmgalensis, native to Africa, has been introduced in the Sunderbans. On the other hand, Coptotermus heimi predominantly found in India and Pakistan probably has established in Java (Maiti and Saha, 1998).

Amongst the 6145 species of dipterous fauna in India, about 25% have introduced and have established themselves in India from abroad. As for example, all species of the Gasterophilidae and Oestridae have been imported with their hosts. Likewise, several pest and parasitic species of animals belonging to the families Culicidae, Ceratopogonidae, Simuliidae, Phlebatomidae, Ippoboscidae, Nycteribiidae, Streblidae, etc., and those of plants from among dipteran families Tephritidae, Drosophilidae, Agromyzidae, etc. have made their way to India mainly by carriages, by birds and other animals or through• imported fruits and vegetables. Among Tephritidae (Diptera), Proeecidoehares utilis belonging to the Neotropical Region was released in the Darjeeling district of West Bengal, Assam, Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh in 1963 for the control of the obnoxious weed Eupatorium trapezoiduon. The larvae of the fly form galls on the stems, particularly destroying the terminal portion of the weed thereby preventing the weed from growing and spreading further. Though introductions of the fly in Hawaii has resulted in a grand success in the eradication of the weed, in India the fly in spite of establishing itself sufficiently well has not been effective in the control of the weed. Mexican Beetle (Zygogramma bie%rata) introduced to control Congress Grass in Jammu, has caused considerable damage to the ecology of the area.

Insect interrelationship is the most important aspect in the insect ecology. Usually a perfect homeostatic mechanism exists in crowding of beetles, aphids, butterflies and dragonflies during feeding, hibernating or other activities thus exhibiting perfect intraspecific associations. The interspecific variations found in insects especially in the groups that exhibits predatism, parasitism, and insects as vectors of diseases and insects as food for other animals is most important in terms of taxonomic research. This is true especially in insects (e.g., parasitic hymenoptera; blood sucking parasites such as mosquitoes, tabanids; vectors of diseases viz., Siphuneulina junieo/a (Diptera : Chloropidae) causing Conjuctivitis in eyes; symbionts such as insects in the nests of ants). Silkworm bioresource

India has the unique distinction of producing all the five known varieties of silk viz., mulberry, oak tasar, tropical tasar, eri and muga. Among five types of silkworms reared in India, mulberry silkworm (Bombyx mari) is reared on large scale through out the country and contributes to over 90% of total silk produced in the country. The mulberry silkworm, Bombyx mori, an economically important insect and a sale source of mulberry silk, finds its commercial origin in China, which is traced back to more than 5000 years. It is believed that two wild silkworms namely Bombyx mandarina and Theophila religiosae are the closest relatives of the domesticated silkworm. Bombyx, though is single genus, has three broad types of geographical identities, namely i) Japanese (Peanut shaped cocoons), ii) Chinese (Elliptical or spherical cocoons) and iii) European (Large

RAMAI<RISHNA and ALFRED: Faunal Resourcr Analysis with little constriction in the cocoons). Due to continuous breeding, few promising silkworm breeds have been bred inall the three types of silkworms. Based on voltinism, silkworms are classified into univoltine, bivoltine and multivoltine : Univoltine silkworms : They have one generation in a year and are characterized by large body size, good quality cocoon filament, but are susceptible to environmental conditions as they are temperate in origin. BivoWne silkworms: They have two generations in a year and are characterized by shorter larval duration. Cocoon quality is comparatively inferior to that of univoltine, robust larvae and can be reared during spring and autumn seasons. Mldtivoltine silk1vorms : They have more than three generations in a year and are characterised by non-diapause eggs, small cocoons, less cocoon filament, robust larvae and can be reared even during summer and autumn seasons. Muga silkworm

Anthernea assamensis, (Helfer) (syn. Anthernea assama Westwood, a junior synonym) Type locality: Assam is unique for its golden yellow silk, which is endemic to this region. It is an integral part of the socio economic life of the people in northeast, besides ethnical values are involved in muga culture. Traditionally, since time immemorial and all the skills related to rearing, seed production, silk production as well as weaving is part and parcel of the farmers of the region. Rearers refer to three types of eco-races available in the wild environment. These are Harujukia (Harubhagia), Barjukia (Barbhagia) and Lebang (Lebong) (Chowdhury, 1968). Geographical distribution: Himachal Pradesh,Sikkim, Assam, Meghalaya, Pondicherry in India and Bangalesh (in Sylhet), Srilanka and Indonesia (Arora and Gupta, 1979). Later workers assumed that the natural distribution of this insect is mainly confined to the Brahmaputra valley of Assam and its surrounding hills (Thangavalu et al., 1988 and Chaudhuri, 1981). Snmia ricini (Donovan) [syn. Philosamin ricini (Hutton)); Type locality: Assam, a state of the North Eastern India is believed to be the natural abode. Number of eco races/ varieties recognised with preferred host plant :

Geographic distribution : The tribal inhabited areas of the North Eastern India, particularly the Brahmaputra Valley of Assam and its neighbouring states.

Tasar, Tussore or Tussah is the silk produced by some wild species of silkworm belonging to the family Saturniidae (Arora and Gupta, 1979). Some of the important species of Tasar silkworm which belong to the genus Antheraea are A. pernyi (China) (Hua-Sin, 1987), A. yamamai Uapan), A. proylei (India), A. roylei (India), A. frithii (India) Golly et. al., 1974) and A. myfitta (India). Tasar silk is divided into temperate tasar and tropical tasar. The tasar silkworm species available in China, japan and sub-himalayan oak belt of India are temperate in nature while traditional Indian tasar is tropical in nature. Geographical Distribution; Oak tasar silkworms are distributed in Sub-Himalayan oak belt of lndia (Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir and Uttaranchal). Commercial Silkworm species

A. Antheraea proylei jolly; Antheraea proylei is a hybrid evolved by the Scientists of Central Silk Board, India through the interspecific hybridization between indigenous species Antheraea roylei Moore (n = 30) and exogenous Chinese species Antheraea pernyi GM (n = 49) (Bhagirath et. al., 1987). This hybrid spins a reelable cocoon thereby introdUcing a temperate tasar culture in the sub-himalayan oak belt of India in 1970. The chromosome number of A. proylei is now stabilized at n = 49. B. Antheraea frithii Mr : Antheraea frithii Mr (n = 31) is found distributed in the hilly regions of North-eastern India, at an altitude between 780 m to 1800 m AMSL. This species feeds primarily on Lithocarpus dealbata and Quercus serrata. In Manipur this species is found distributed in different districts viz. Senapati (Phybung Khullen, Luwang Sangol, Tumuyon Khullen), Ukhrul (Silent village, Hundung village), Imphal East (Pukhao, Dolansabi, Yumnam Khunou, Andro etc.). The species multiplies in two generations under in situ conditions in the natural habitats of Manipur (23.80oN to 25.68°N Latitude and 93.3°E to 94.78°E Longitude). Under ex situ condition the species is maintained in germplasm to study the behaviour of this wild silkworm.

C. Antheraea roylei Moore: Antheraea roylei (n= 30,31) is an endemic species found in the North-eastern and North-western sub-himalayan oak belt of India at an altitude of 1100 m to 1800 m AMSL. It forms a white coloured double-layered cocoon. This silkworm feeds on different Quercus species like Q. serrata, Q. incana, Q. dealbata, Castanopsis sp. etc. and apple leaves. D. Antheraea pernyi GM : Antheraea pernyi is an exogenous (Chinese) species (n=49) and distributed from Amur to southern China. This species was introduced to Korea, Soviet Russia, japan and India just a few decades back. The naturally grown food plants of A. pemyi are Quercus serrata, Q. griffithii, Q. semecarpifolin, Q. incana, Q. himalayana and Q. dealbata, etc. Presently it is commercially exploited for production of oak tasar silk in North eastern and western states of sub-Himalayan oak belt.

E. PRPI2 : It is an important breed of oak tasar silkworm, A. proylei developed by the Regional Tasar Research Station, Central Silk Board, Imphal through selection from the segregating progenies of the cross A. proylei (A. royle; x A. proylei). PRP12 has shown improvement of 20.62% in larval weight, 81.46% in cocoon yield per dfl and 24.87% in cocoon weight over A. proylei. Commercial exploitation of this breed has been initiated through the extension centres of Regional Tasar Research Station, Central Silk Board, Impha!. F. PRP5: It is also an important breed of!oak tasar silkworm A. proylei developed by the Regional Tasar Research Station, Central Silk Board, Imphal through selection from the segregating progenies of the cross A. proylei (A. roylei x A. proylei). PRP5 has shown improvement of 18.60% in fecundity and 29,79% in filament length over A. proylei. Commercial exploitation of this breed has been initiated through the extension centres of Regional Tasar Research Station, Central Silk Board, Imphal. No. of ecoraces/varieties of Tasar silkworm recognized: So far, 44 ecoraces of tropical tasar silkworm are reported. Geographical distribution of the ecoraces is depicted below:

The major sources of silkworm germplasm in India are Research Institutes and Regional Research Stations of Central Silk Board. Central Sericultural Germplasrn Resources Centre, Hosur (Tamil Nadu) is involved in collection, characterization, evaluation and preservation of silkworm germplasm. Presently, 394 silkworm accessions (311 bivoltines, 19 mutants and 64 multivoltines) are being maintained at CSGRC, Hosur. Working germplasm stocks to facilitate the silkworm breeders are being maintained at Central Sericultural Research & Training Institutes at Mysore (Kamataka), Berhampore (West Bengal) and Pampore Oammu & Kashmir) and at Regional Sericultural Research Stations located in Jammu U& K), Sahaspur (Uttaranchal), Kalimpong (West Bengal) and Coonoor (Tamil Nadir). In addition, silkworm germplasm stocks are also maintained by state owned sericultural institutes like KSSRDI, Bangalore (Kamataka) and APSSRDI, Hindupur (A.P.). A few Universities like University of Mysore, Mysore and Bangalore University, Bangalore are also maintaining a small quantity of gennplasm stock, mainly for breeding purposes.

Lac bioresource Lac, Kerria lacca (Kerr.) is a unique natural, renewable, non toxic and ecofriendly bioresource of this country and needs to be preserved and fostered for its prosperity, as it yields three usehtl materials i.e., resin, dye and wax. Presently lac and lac based products are contributing to the national exchequer as it offers local employment and earns foreigri exchange for the country, being exported to more than 100 countries allover the world. Predation and p;;.rasitism upon lac insects are common due to their sedentary and gregarious habits. Biological control of the insect predators (Eublemmn amabilis Moore, Pseudohypatopa (Holcocera) pulverea Meyr, Chrysopa modesties Banks and Chrysopa lacciperdtr Kimmins) attacking tile lac insects has been very scanty. Egg parasitoids such as Trichogrammn brasiliense, T. chilonis were found to be•quite potent against P. pulverea and E. amabilis. Similar work in this direction may further benefit mankind. The second area of research that needs to be looked into is the effect of infestation, host plant metabolism and inter and intra specific variation in the host plants (Butea monospermn, Zizyphus maurutinna, Schleichera oleosa, Albizin lucida, Flemingin macrophylla, Acacia auriculaeformis), used for lac culture. This will have a pronounced effect on the biological characteristics of lac insects which ultimately affect the quality and quantity of the lac produced. Medicinally lac is used in curing haemorrhage, fracture, wound, hiccup, cough and other upper respiratory diseases, diarrhoea, fever, skin diseases. Its use cures backache, premature ejaculation and leprosy. The above have a direct bearing on the socio-economic conditions of the tribal population of Madhya Pradesh, Jharkand, Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa and other areas that predominantly utilize this resource for their livelyhood as well as for the enhancement of the country's resource base.

Medicinal Resources Of Insects

Ants (Niger umbratus) are used as a whole organism in Unani system of medicine as they have analgesic and aphrodisiac action. Black ants are extracted in olive oil and used for the treatment of earache and believed to have aphrodisiac power. Vespa orientalis (Vespidae) acts as nervine stumulant, analgesic and other nutrient actions. Live wasps are made to sting the subjects suffering from vitiligo, paralysis and other nervous disorders for beneficial effect. Wasps ground with honey and salt form a useful paste for application in rheumatism and leucoderma. Black variety is fried in olive oil and applied externally for the treatment of Leucoderma. Young ones of wasps in combination with other drugs are said to be nutrient and fattening. Cimex lectularis (Bed bugs) is also used in unani system of medicine as the whole organism has detoxicant and depilatory actions. In Unani System of Medicine, application of dried bedbug in and arotmd nostrils or their gargles with urine facilitates expulsion of leech from throat. Instillation of the extract of bugs through urethral opening relieves urinary obstruction. Fumigation is good for epilepsy. Application in the form of paste promotes hair growth. In snakebite cases, ingestion of one bug acts as detoxicant. Ingestion of 6 bedbugs with ripe banana cures piles. Pediculus humanus (Hippoboscidae) the whole organism is used in unani system of medicine as it has anti-febrile action.

Anthrenus scrophulariae (Myrmeleonidae), the buffalo carpet beetle used as a whole organism in Unani System of Medicine has antibillious, anti-poisoning and depilatory actions. It is also good for eyes. Its khisandahin very small doses removes bilious tumours of stomach and liver. It is useful in dropsy and scorpion sting. Insects fried in olive oil alleviate earache and. give relief in piles. Tail of an insect is cut; a fluid exudes from the body. This is instilled in eyes for the treatment of eye diseases. The beetle if tied on the thighs of parturient women believed to facilitate delivery. MuteUa occidentalis (Coccidae), the cochineal insect is used in Ayurveda, Unani and Homoeopathy system of medicine. The dried bodies of the fecundated female insect containing eggs and larvae are used in medicine. The insects are collected from the branches and leaves of the cacti, crushed and immersed in boiling water, spread out and dried ready for use. When dry they can be easily reduced to powder. It contains carmine (the colouring matter) or carminic acid 10%, wax coccerin, fatty matter consisting of myrestin, liquid fat and fally acids 18, moisture 6, salts and ash 3 to 5%. The carmine prepared from the insect is a brilliant red powder with a faint odour and billerish and warm taste; it tinges the saliva violet -red. It is soluble in water and alcohol, entirely soluble in ammonia water. It has acid properties and hence called carminic acid. It is given in many of the Vatavyadhis (Vatic diseases) and in Dhvaja Bhanga. In Dhvaja Bhanga, it is applied both externally and given internally. It is given for eruptions of measles pustules. It is also used as a colouring agent, as an adjunct to expectorant mixtures. It is useful in whooping cough, neuralgia, etc. The insects are taken in betel for improving complextion and for the treatment of paralysis and facial paralysis. Inhalation with lemon juice is good for amenorrhoea. In Homeopathy, the dried insects are mixed with alcohol and used in whooping cough with the symptoms, paroxysms of cough, ending with vomiting of dear, ropy mucus, extending in great long strings even to the feet. Periplaneta americana (Blallidae), the whole organism is used in Unani system of medicine. The cockroaches are dried and pulverized for use in earache. They are ashed and given with honey for relief in dyspnoea, urinary obstruction, uterine colic and for ernmenagogoue and abortifacient actions. The ash is administered with lemon juice for detoxicating action.

Gry/lllS domesticn (Gryllidae), the whole organism is used in Unani system of medicine as an analgesic. Roasted insect is useful in colic, particularly of cystic origin. The insect is fried in olive oil and instilled in ear for alleviating earache. Poecilocerus pictlls (Locustidae), the whole organism is used in Unani system of medicine as has aphrodisiac, anti-poisoning and depilatory actions. It is useful in Leprosy, lung diseases and sexual debility. Chlamydolyclls trabentlls (Lampyridae), the whole organism is used in Unani system of medicine as an analgesic, depilatory and good for eye diseases. If one fly is dried and taken with asfaoetida for three days, it is useful in renal and cystic calculi. It is believed to cure night blindness. Externally it is used with egg albumen for the treatment of piles. Instillation with rose oil is depurative and beneficial in earache and deafness. Ingestion of more than three flies is found to be fatal.

Musca domestica (Muscidae), the excreta and the whole organism is used in Ayurveda system of medicine as it acts as an emetic. Tinea pel/ione/la (Pellionelliadae), the whole organism is used in Unani system as it acts as an aphrodisiac. The tincture is made of one part of dried Spanish flies (Lyttn vesicatorin), and five parts of alcohol. Mylnbris chicorii (Coleoptera), the insect is used in aurveda and unani as the dried part contains a fally acid "Cantharidin" 1 to 2 per cent. Cantharidin is an internal stimulant and diuretic. When applied externally, a powerful and valuable counter irritant and vesicant. As a vesicant it is a very powerful and acts without pain and without irritation of the urinary organs. Apis me/lifica (Apidae) the wax, honey and whole organism is used in Ayurveda, Siddha, Homoeopathy and Unani systems of medicine. Grape-sugar or dextrose which becomes crystalline, fruit-sugar or levulose which remain liquid, wax, volatile oil, proteins, mucilage, colouring matter, formic acid and ash (rich in carbohydrates). Some of the substances contained are pollen dust, ethereal oil, various phosphates, lime (calcium) and iron. Most of the elements found in the human body are in small proportion present in the honey. The dextrose and levulose present in saccharine are absorbed easily by the digestive system and therefore acts as nutrient. Regarding the presence of vitamin content it is stated that honey contains both the fat-soluble and water-soluble principles. Honey contains a special protein secreted by the bee; in addition it contains a diastolic ferment similar to that of saliva and having the power to convert starch into sugar. In short, chemically honey is mainly a mixture of dextrose and livulose. New honey is considered demulcent and laxative. Honey more than a year old is astringent, demulcent, detergent, pectoral, emollient and laxative. It also possesses nutritive properties. The fally acids present in honey stimulate peristalsis and digestion. Honey in moderate doses has a beneficial effect on digestion, an appetite of those with weak stomachs and loose bowels. Its value lies in providing a readily absorbable food. It is the most potent fuel to prOVide energy for muscle and consequently most valuable for that all-important, most vital muscle the heart that knows no complete physical rest. Lime in honey is useful in regulating the secretion of internal glandular organs. Again it has hypnotic action in bringing sound sleep if taken with cold water, before going to bed in doses of 2 tea spoons full in a big cup full of water. It decreases flatulence and increases general metabolism and also the quantity of the urine among children. Locally applied it stimulates the mucus surfaces when in an atonic condition. It also acts as styptic. A special protein secreted by the bees contain in honey when inoculated into rabbits causes the formation of anti bodies in the serum. Bhramara type of honey is beneficial for phlegm, cough, fever and epitaxis. It is used as tincture. Kshlldra honey is useful in eye diseases. Chhatrn is beneficial in haematemsis, worms, leucoderma, gonorrhoea and alleviative of giddiness, hysteria and poisoning. Arg/Ul or wild honey is beneficial in eye diseases, piles, cholera, cough, pthysis, jaundice and ulcers. Da/a or unprepared honey is productive of digestive fire, generative of bile and beneficial in phlegm, gonorrhoea and vomiting.

In Homoeopathy, honey is used in curing rapid swellings with redness, burning and stinging pains, and oedema of any part of the body. This remedy meets oedematous infiltrations and inflammations. In addition to the above, honey is used in curing mental symptoms, head symptoms (Meningitis), eye symptoms (Asthenopia and chemosis, a puffiness of the conjunctiva showing oedma. Oedematous swelling of the eyelids and especially under eyes), in glossitis or inflammation of the tongue, in diptheria, in laryngeal symptoms, in diarrhoea, in urinary symptoms, in external genital organs (oedematous swellings of the scrotum, testicles or labiae) and in ovarian troubles. It is also used in curing respiratory symptoms, in general symptoms of extremities and in curing the skin infection. It is also used in curing dropsy and in febrile symptoms.

Wax contains hydrocarbons (12-15%), cerolein, cerinor, cerotic acid which crystallizes from boiling alcohol, myricin as myricyl and melissyl palmitate, ceryl alcohol etc. Wax is an emolIient and demulcent chiefly used externally as basis, in the preparation of ointments, clusters. It acts as analgesic, demulcent and anti-poisoning.