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[edit] The construction of temples

[edit] Vastu rules for Temple construction

SHRUTI SRIVASTAVA, Agni Purana: Sacred rituals to build temples, AUG 15, 2017, Speaking Tree

Vastu rules for Temple construction

Anyone who’s ever built or constructed a home would know how important it is to have a sanctioned design for the same. People, who practice Hinduism, know the significance of Vastu Shastra and its importance during the construction of house, any commercial or religious place.

Unlike in present time, the construction of religious edifices and idols was considered of sacred importance and thus followed a set of sanctified set of rules and rituals. Holy Scripture, Agni Purana has several chapters that guide us through the ancient ways on how to construct holy places and idols, and how to pray.

Brahma-Vishnu-Mahesh

These chapters comprises of divine mantras and rituals in dedication to worshiping of Lord Vishnu, Shiva, Brahma and many other Gods and Goddesses; including ways to appease them and perform sacred penance towards them.

Lord Vishwakarma

In the ancient times, not anyone or everyone could construct the temple or build an idol; the knowledge was restricted to Lord Vishwakarma and his disciples. In those times, these idols and temples were not constructed to satisfy the whims and fancies of devotees, but to endow them with a chance to get rid off their sins and surrender to the divine lords.

Why were temples built?

According to ancient mythological legend, when someone would accidentally commit a sin, they would perform a penance and build a temple in order to appease the Gods and Goddesses; they would take guidance from Lord Vishwakarma, who would help them build the holy edifice.

Temple construction in ancient times

It is also believed that those, who were incapable of building a shrine, would construct idols of deity. As per Agni Purana, individual who builds one temple would go and serve in heaven, who builds five temples enters the shivaloka and who builds eight gets to enter vishnuloka and who builds 16 temples is freed from the cycle of birth and death.

Punya of constructing a temple

In those times, earning ‘punya’ was considered more valuable than accumulating material wealth. The punya of constructing temple and idols is invaluable than any material possessions. Agni Purana explains that not anyone should build a temple; neither should it be constructed without following the sacred rituals; same in the case of constructing god idols.

Sacred rules/rituals for building temple

The first and foremost rule of building a temple is that it should not be constructed facing away of the city or town; in fact it should be facing the city and its resident. The ‘dwar’ should be build facing the East, from where the sunrays would fall on the sacred entrance. Under no circumstances, a temple’s entrance should be South facing.

The sanctum, where the idol of the chief deity is supposed to be set up must align with the entrance i.e. the idol must face the entrance in the East direction.

The walls of the temple must be built in a regular shape, like a square or a rectangle; oval, triangle and circle are prohibited shapes as per the Vastu scriptures of Vishwakarma.

While the entire ground of the temple must be in level with the earth, only the place chosen for placing the Idol of the deity should be three ‘ungal’ above the ground level.

Temple must always be constructed along a hill, mountain or sea and should not be in the vicinity of a sewer, a slaughter house or liqor-serving place.

The size of the temple should be a multiple of the size of the God’s idol. And, while constructing the temple the ‘nakshatra’ of the city (based on the date of city’s origin) must be taken into consideration and the temple’s name is therefore kept in accordance with it.

[edit] Right to construct temple on private property protected by constitution

Rajesh Kumar Pandey, TNN, August 18, 2023: The Times of India

PRAYAGRAJ: The Allahabad HC has termed an order passed by the Sambhal district magistrate on October 30, 2017 halting the construction of a temple by a priest-cum-political leader as based on "presumptions and surmises".

"Mere construction of a temple by any person on his private property cannot offend the religious sensibilities of any other community," the HC observed while disposing of writ petition filed by Acharya Pramod Krishnam Ji Maharaj. Krishnam had unsuccessfully contested the 2019 and 2014 Lok Sabha polls on a Congress ticket from Sambhal.

Krishnam, who claims to be the seer of a sect, had purchased certain properties in a village of Sambhal district, and had planned to lay the foundation of Kalki Dham Temple on November 7, 2016. A representation was made by Inamur Rahman Khan, who claimed to be national president of the Muslim Kisan Union, that the foundation laying ceremony of the temple would be opposed by Muslims.

Following a report by a local administration official to the DM fearing "breach of peace", the petitioner was stopped from laying the temple's foundation without the district administration's permission. The court declined to accept the ground taken by the DM that construction of the temple would offend religious sensibilities of a particular community.

"The right of the petitioner to construct a temple on his property is protected by Articles 25 and 26 of the Constitution and there is no evidence that the construction would have disturbed public order or was against morality or would be inimical to public health," the HC observed. Regarding the DM's apprehension that by constructing the temple the petitioner intended to encroach on nearby state land, the court said in its judgment, dated August 9: "Only because the plot on which the temple is proposed is near state land is not by itself sufficient to conclude that the petitioner intends to encroach upon it.”

[edit] The economy: impact of temples on

[edit] As in 2021

June 21, 2021: The Times of India

Devdutt Pattanaik writes a fortnightly column that filters the voices on all sides

Vedic gods resided in the sky. They were unbound by geography. Temple gods are firmly bound by geography. Jagannath is firmly linked to Odisha, Tirupati to Andhra Pradesh, Nathdvara to Rajasthan. The temple, as we know it today, is closely linked to land given by kings to village gods via Brahmins - a practice that became widespread 1,500 years ago. Through the temple, the wealth generated from farms was circulated among weavers, garland makers, dancers, and musicians, who contributed to the many rites, rituals and festivals of the temple. It created an economy.

Before entering a temple, therefore, it is important to recognise the bazaars around it, for it is these which indicate the temple is prosperous. The shops provide sweets and cloth and lamps that visiting pilgrims will offer to the deity. The shops also provide food, accommodation, and souvenirs to the travellers. It is around the temple that we discover the local arts and crafts, the local cuisines.

Temples are typically built on a plinth - at a height to protect it from floods. A flight of stairs takes us up the plinth. Older temples such as the one at Khajuraho, Old Bhubaneshwar and Mamallapuram, did not have walls around them. But when invasions and attacks became common, massive walls were built around temples. The enclosure includes water tanks and orchards, that were once the original sacred spaces, before they were eclipsed by manmade structures.

In south Indian temples, there is the unique gateway known as Gopuram. It originated in the times of the Vijayanagara dynasty, to proclaim the splendour of the king. A series of gateways, created by later kings, grew taller in size. They are covered with images of gods and goddesses, and remind us of the statues of Vikramaditya’s throne, telling stories of heroes of yore. In earlier times, before the Gopuram, the gate was indicated by a free-standing torana, marking the entrance, that separates the world of man from the world of gods. The earliest toranas were raised in front of Buddhist stupas.

The walls around the temple are decorated with images that tell you stories of the gods and goddesses. There is usually a circle of nymphs said to usher in prosperity. And there is a circle of ferocious beasts and monsters who offer protection. Entrances are marked by the river goddesses, Ganga and Yamuna, who make the temple a ‘sangam’ and remind us that all temples in India seek to evoke the auspiciousness linked to Prayag-kshetra, the birthplace of Vedic culture. A pair of doorkeepers, who look like fierce manifestations of the deity inside, ushers in the devotee. If it is a Shiva temple, then the pair is Vetala-Bhootnath. If it is a Vishnu temple the pair is Jay-Vijay. If it is a Shakti temple, the pair is Maya-Laya.

Once you cross the gateway, you can often find free-standing pillars. There is the Dhwaja-stambha for flags. The authority and power of the temple reached as far as the flags could be seen. Atop some pillars, you find images of the Garuda praying to Vishnu, or Aruna praying to Surya. This was probably inspired by the mana-stambha, found in Jain temples, that some contend predate Hindu temples. In Maharashtra, you find the Deepa-stambha - pillars lined by lamps that are lit during celebrations such as Mahashivratri. Temples in Rameshwaram and Madurai are famous for their corridors, which are lined with pillars. They are also famous for their ceilings which are painted with vibrant colours. The main temple usually has pillared halls where devotees gather to see the deity. These are the pavilions known as Mandapas. These are not found in older temples.

In the innermost room is the deity, hidden by curtains, and visible by lamps. Atop this room is the Viman or Shikhara, a pyramidal or conical structure, that grew taller and more elaborate with improving technology and the wealth and power of kings. Around it is a path to circumambulate the deity. Access to the deity is limited. Usually, only priests are allowed to enter the sanctum sanctorum, especially in Vishnu temples. The more Brahmin control, the less direct access to the deity. But the deity sometimes travels outside, for boat and chariot rides, and on palanquins. This was started for the benefit of those devotees who were not considered ‘pure’ enough to enter the sanctum sanctorum - a reminder of India’s caste system that Hinduism struggles to shake away.

A temple brought prosperity to the vicinity. The presence of the God ensured regular rains and good harvests. The more wishes the deity fulfilled, the more pilgrims came to the temple, further enhancing the prosperity of the temple and the local economy.

[edit] Entry into Temples

[edit] Saints denied entry into temples

Devdutt Pattanaik, July 31, 2021: The Times of India

In Maharashtra, at Pandharpur, outside the temple of Vithala, is a shrine to the poet-saint, Chokhamela, who lived in the 14th century. The saint was not allowed to enter the temple by Brahmin orthodoxy. He spent all his life outside the temple walls and is said to have died outside the temple walls where he was buried. His bones still chant "Vithala, Vithala". Hence, a shrine to him is made outside the temple. BR Ambedkar was not allowed to enter the temple beyond this point. The story is a reminder of caste prohibitions that existed in India for a very long time.

A similar story is associated with the shrine of Krishna in Udupi. Hindu temple doors open facing the east, but the image of Krishna in the temple faces west and is seen through a window. The story goes that a peasant warrior known as Kanaka Dasa wanted to see the image of Krishna but was not allowed by the priests. Thus, the image turned to the western direction and was seen through a crack in the wall by Kanaka.

As one climbs the seven hills to get the darshan of Tirupati Balaji, one finds on the floor, a cemented image of a man. It lies prone on the floor, prostrating before the deity. It is said to be Mala Dasari. He was a cobbler who used to provide footwear to Tirupati Balaji, but was never allowed to enter the shrine. Thus, at the point, which he could not cross, he prostrated himself before the lord. The lord would come to meet him there.

In Odisha, in the 18th century, there is a story of a local Hindu King who had to marry a Muslim princess to prevent her father from attacking and destroying the Jaggannath temple. Because he married a Muslim woman, he was not allowed to enter the temple by the temple priests. So, a special shrine was built at the gateway, which is still seen today called Patita Pavana. Even the flag atop Jagannath temple is called the Patita Pavana flag. It is said that those who are not allowed to enter the temple can attain salvation by looking at the flag and the deity at the doorstep.

In the seventh and eighth centuries, in Tamil Nadu, there lived a drummer called Nandanar. He was a great devotee of Shiva, but was not allowed to enter Shiva temples. He would stand far off seeking a glimpse of Shiva. The statue of Nandi, which stands right in front of the sanctum sanctorum, would move a little bit, so that Nandanar could get a glimpse of the lord. There are stories of how he wanted to see Shiva at the Chidambaram temple. For his sake, a special fire was created. As he passed it, his body was 'purified' and was given the form of a Brahmin, so that he could see the deity. The story is an old one and suggests that he was not allowed to enter the temple. There are various ways of interpreting the story. Some people say he did not enter the temple because he respected the Brahmanical order. Others say he was burnt alive in his attempt to see Shiva.

These five stories are all related to five temples: Pandharpur, Udupi, Tirupati, Jagannatha Puri, and Chidambaram. They all refer to people not being given access to the sanctum sanctorum. These stories are spread over a 1,000-year history, across the geography of India. They reveal the widespread prevalence of caste orthodoxy, manifested in the access to temples. These rules were finally eased in the 20th century. Most Hindus are legally allowed to enter most temples now. But non-Hindus, that’s a different matter.

Non-Muslims can enter any mosque but not Mecca. Non-Parsis cannot enter an agiary. Many local temples have rules that restrict access of women and the general public to the inner shrines of the temple. These are no different from visa-restrictions for poor, unskilled economic migrants to most nations around the world. Or club rules that determine who can be a member and who cannot. Harappan cities had no temples, but they had walls to control entry and exit from the city to regulate trade and inventory.

Physical and psychological borders are created to assert power and to establish authority of a few over the many. But nature has no boundaries. Boundaries, walls, gates and windows are created by humans. We may break old boundaries but we will create new boundaries, because we value our privacy and our property. Sacredness is created just like privacy, using a password, accessible to a few.

Devdutt Pattanaik writes a fortnightly column that filters the voices on all sides

(Disclaimer: The views expressed here are the author's own)

[edit] Places of Hindu worship before there were temples

Devdutt Pattanaik, July 16, 2021: The Times of India

Harappan seals indicate that its residents worshipped trees, and holy men who lived in forests. There were no temples in Harappan cities. The oldest of the Vedic scriptures, the Rig Veda, was composed 500 years after the collapse of the Harappan cities. It also does not refer to any temples. Temples appear much later in Indian history, after the composition of the Puranas, 1500 years ago, and are linked to a rise in feudalism and land grants. We can say that Hinduism has two halves: Nigama, without temples and Agama, with temples. This change is really about what Brahmins gave value to.

The Rig Veda is full of hymns that praise various gods, especially those associated with storms, the sky and sun, who never made it to temples. They were invoked through temporary fire-altars that were dismantled after the ritual, indicating these hymns and rituals belonged to a nomadic pastoral community who did not need a permanent shrine.

As the cattle-herding nomads settled down into an agricultural lifestyle, in the Gangetic plains around the Iron Age, ie 1,000 BCE, archaeologists have found painted greyware pottery, a shift from the earlier red-black pottery, but no sign of temples. This is when the Samaveda provided melodies for Rigvedic hymns. These melodies were classified as those for the forest and those for the field. The Yajurveda takes the mantras of the Rigveda and attaches them to rituals of kingship. The Rig, Sama and Yajur are the main Vedas, hence referred to as the triad or trayi in most literature. The Atharvaveda was distinct, more personal and related to health, birth, marriage and death.

The content of the Vedas indicates a shift from pastoral life in the wild to settled life around fields, and the rise of kingship and collaboration between diverse communities. The Yajurveda extended itself to manuals known as Brahmanas. Here, we find the first mention of the rivalry between devas and asuras and the earliest stories known as itihasas. The itihasas explained how mantras are used to maintain balance between the gods, rishis and humans. They further explained how mantras can keep away negative forces, such as asuras and rakshasas. The Aryanakas referred to rituals performed secretly in the forest, away from settlements.

Most Brahmins did not care what Vedic hymns meant and focussed on simply remembering the hymns, singing them and performing rituals. Others focused on the phonetics, etymology, grammar and poetics of Vedic hymns, and realised how sounds, and bricks, come together to create structures of meaning. Jyotisha-shastra became important to decide the time of rituals. Sulba-sutra gave rise to geometrical principles to design Vedic altars. The Srauta Sutra emerged explaining the large ceremonial rituals. The Graha-sutras explained the residential rituals. These included the maintenance of the three fires: One for the gods, one for the household and one for the ancestors.

In this period, we have the first Dharmasutras, that seek to organise life. Occupations are classified under the four-fold division (varna): The priests, the warriors, the peasants and the servants. This four-fold division of society is accompanied by a four-fold division of life (ashrama): When to study, when to marry, when to retire and when to renounce the world. The Dharma Shastras eventually became legal manuals that the Brahmins used to enable kings to govern the land. They seem indifferent to temples.

Then, around 500 BCE, came the Upanishads, later known as Vedanta, or end of the Vedas. While Samveda, Yajurveda, Brahmana and Aranyaka focus on prosperity and the tension between the forest and the cultivated fields, the Upanishads wonder about the nature of life (jiva) and what binds the world together. These ideas were created by tapasvi, or the meditating and wandering mendicants, some of whom gave rise to Buddhist and Jain monastic orders that completely rejected Vedic ritual. Buddhists and Jains first built monumental mounds for their teachers, which were precursors of Hindu temples. Here we find the first visualisations of yakshas and yakshis, spirits venerated by common folk; spirits who lived in sacred landscapes, trees and animals; spirits who would eventually become an integral part of Buddhist, Jain and Hindu mythology.

While the older Dharma Shastras refer to North India as Arya-varta (land of the noble people), the later Dharma Shastras refer to the entire Indian subcontinent as Arya-varta. Historians believed that 2,000 years ago, Buddhism, Jainism and Vedism began spreading south of the Vindhyas. And it is only in the south, in Tamil Sangam poetry, that we first hear of gods firmly linked to land and landscape. We hear of Seyon who lives atop mountains and Mayon who lives in the forest. We hear of Kotravai and her son, who live in the wilderness. Indra, now, occupies the fields; Varuna, the sea. Very different from Vedic descriptions.

In the songs of Alvars and Nayanars, we hear of gods in temples. These gods were originally clan-gods (kula-devata) and village gods (grama-devatas) of the non-Brahmin, non-Buddhist, non-Jain masses, who eventually became deities of India’s grand temples identified with Shiva and Vishnu of the Puranic stories.

Devdutt Pattanaik writes a fortnightly column that filters the voices on all sides

(Disclaimer: The views expressed here are the author's own)

[edit] Surya Tilak

[edit] How the various temples do it

April 17, 2024: The Times of India

AYODHYA: The Surya Tilak ritual, a sacred tradition that's been around for centuries, happened in Ayodhya on Ram Navami today.

It's worth noting that this unique ritual is not limited to Ayodhya alone. According to reports, various temples across India perform the 'Surya Tilak', each with its own distinct engineering and techniques. Let's explore how this ritual is carried out in different parts of the country.

Suriyanar Kovil Temple (Tamil Nadu)

The ancient temple, constructed during the 11th and 12th centuries, pays homage to Surya, the Sun God.

The architectural design of the temple is ingeniously crafted to allow sunlight to illuminate specific areas within the sacred structure at predetermined times throughout the year.

During these moments, the rlight falls upon the deity, Suriyanar (Sun) and his divine consorts, Ushadevi and Pratyusha Devi.

Nanarayanaswamy Temple (Andhra Pradesh)

In the district of Nagalapuram, a five-day festival known as the Surya Puja Mahotsavam is celebrated at the temple. During this event, the rays of the Sun enter the temple and undergo various stages each day.

Over the course of the five days, the Sun's rays progress from the feet to navel of the main deity housed in the garbhagriha, which is the sanctum sanctorum of the temple. The presiding deity is the 'Matsya avatar' (fish) of Lord Vishnu.

Mahalakshmi Temple (Maharashtra)

The Mahalakshmi Temple in Kolhapur, built during the Chalukyan era, is famous for a unique phenomenon called the Kiranotsav. This event occurs twice a year, making it a rare and special occasion for devotees.

During the Kiranotsav, sunrays directly penetrate the temple through the Garud Mandap, ultimately reaching the 'garbhagriha', or the inner sanctum. On two particular days, the sunrays illuminate the feet of the goddess Mahalaxmi's idol, creating a mesmerizing sight for worshippers.

Koba Jain Temple (Gujarat)

The Koba Jain Temple in Ahmedabad hosts the annual Surya Abhishek, a significant event for Jains worldwide. During this occasion, at precisely 2:07 pm, sunlight directly illuminates the forehead of Mahaveerswami's marble statue for a duration of three minutes.

Unav Balaji Surya Temple (Madhya Pradesh)

The Sun Temple in Datia is a sacred site that honors the Sun God, the primary deity worshipped within its walls. Each year, the temple holds a special festival to celebrate and pay homage to this divine being.

One of the most remarkable features of the temple is its precise alignment with the sun's path.

During the dawn of the festival day, the sun's first rays illuminate the idol housed in the temple's innermost sanctuary, known as the "sanctum sanctorum."

Konark Sun Temple (Odisha)

The ancient temple, constructed in the 13th century, is a sacred site devoted to the worship of the Sun God.

The temple's layout is planned to ensure that the first rays of the Sun make contact with the main entrance, before gradually filtering through the various doorways.

As the sunlight penetrates deeper into the temple, it ultimately reaches the innermost sanctum, known as the 'garbhcreagriha'

Gavi Gangadhareshwara Temple (Karnataka)

The Gavipuram Cave Temple, situated in the vicinity of Bengaluru, is a sacred shrine devoted to Lord Shiva. On the auspicious occasion of Makar Sankranti, a fascinating phenomenon occurs within the temple's sanctum sanctorum.

The sunrays enter the cave and first illuminate the statue of Nandi, Lord Shiva's loyal bull companion. The light then proceeds to reach the feet of the Shivlingam, the iconic representation of Lord Shiva. Eventually, the sunrays engulf the entire deity, bathing it in a divine glow.

The garbhagriba or the inner sanctum of the temple is carved from a specific type of rock. This unique architectural feature allows direct sunlight to penetrate the otherwise dark and enigmatic cave interior.

[edit] See also

Hindu temples and the law: India

Temple properties: India

Temple trusts/ boards