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Jain Religion

From The Tribes And Castes Of The Central Provinces Of India

By R. V. Russell

Of The Indian Civil Service

Superintendent Of Ethnography, Central Provinces

Assisted By

Rai Bahadur Hira Lal,

Extra Assistant Commissioner

Macmillan And Co., Limited, London, 1916.

NOTE 1: The 'Central Provinces' have since been renamed Madhya Pradesh.

NOTE 2: While reading please keep in mind that all articles in this series have been scanned from the original book. Therefore, footnotes have got inserted into the main text of the article, interrupting the flow. Readers who spot these footnotes gone astray might like to shift them to their correct place.

[^Bibliography : The Jainas, by Dr. J. G. Buhler and J. Burgess, London, 1903; The Religions of India, Professor E. W. Hopkins; 7/^1? Religions of India, Professor A. Barth ; Punjab Census Report (1891), Sir E. D. Maclagan ; article on Jainism in Dr. Hastings' Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics.^ LIST OF PARAGRAPHS

1. Numbers atid dtstribi(tion.

2. The Jain religion. Its connee tion with Buddhism.-

3. TheJain tenets. The Tirthakdrs.

4. The transmigration?! of souls.

5. Strict rules against taking life.

8. Jam subcastes of Banias.

9. Rules and customs of the laity.

10. Connectio7i with Hinduism.

11. Temples and carfestival.

12. Images of the Tirthakdrs.

13. Religious observances.

14. Tenderness for animal life,

15. Social condition of the Jains.

b. Jain sects.

y. Jain ascetics.

Jain

The total number of Jains in the Central Provinces i. Num- in 191 I was 71,000 persons. They nearly all belong to the |i|'s\ribu^ Bania caste, and are engaged in moneylending and trade tion. like other Banias. They reside principally in the Vindhyan Districts, Saugor, Damoh and Jubbulpore, and in the principal towns of the Nagpur country and Berar. The Jain tenets present marked features of resemblance 2. The to Buddhism, and it was for some time held that Jainism J^'"*"^'- was merely a later offshoot from that religion.

The more its connec- generally accepted view now, however, is that the Jina or buddhism, prophet of the Jains was a real historical personage, who lived in the sixth century B.C., being a contemporary of Gautama, the Buddha. Vardhamana, as he was commonly called, is said to have been the younger son of a small chieftain in the province of Videha or Tirhut. Like Sakya- Muni the Buddha or enlightened, Vardhamana became an ascetic, and after twelve years of a wandering life he appeared as a prophet, proclaiming a modification of the

doctrine of his own teacher Parsva or Parasnath. From this time he was known as Mahavira, the great hero, the same name which in its famiHar form of Mahablr is appHed to the god Hanuman. The title of Jina or victorious, from which the Jains take their name, was subsequently conferred on him, his sect at its first institution being called Nirgrantha or ascetic. There are very close resemblances in the tradi- tions concerning the lives of Vardhamana and Gautama or Buddha. Both were of royal birth ; the same names recur among their relatives and disciples ; and they lived and preached in the same part of the country, Bihar and Tirhijt.^ Vardhamana is said to have died during Buddha's lifetime, the date of the latter's death being about 480 B.C.^

Their doctrines also, with some important differences, present, on the whole, a close resemblance. Like the Buddhists, the Jains claim to have been patronised by the Maurya princes. While Asoka was mainly instrumental in the propagation of Buddhism over India, his grandfather Chandragupta is stated to have been a Jain, and his grandson Sampadi also figures in Jain tradition, A district which is a holy land for one is almost always a holy land for the other, and their sacred places adjoin each other in Bihar, in the peninsula of Gujarat, on Mount Abu in Rajputana and elsewhere.^

The earliest of the Jain books belongs to the sixth century A.D., the existence of the Nirgrantha sect in Buddha's life- time being proved by the Cingalese -books of the Buddhists, and by references to it in the inscriptions of Asoka and others."* While then M. Barth's theory that Jainism was simply a later sect of Buddhism has been discarded by subsequent scholars, it seems likely that several of the details of Vardhamana's life now recorded in the Jain books are not really authentic, but were taken from that of Buddha with necessary alterations, when the true facts about their own prophet had been irrevocably lost. 3. The Like the Buddhists, the Jains recognise no creator of Jain tenets, j-j^^ world, and supposc it to have existed from eternity. Tirthakars. Similarly, they had originally no real god, but the Jina or 1 Barth, p. 148. " Earth, p. 149- 2 Hopkins, p. 310, and Tlie Jains, * Tlie Jaiitas, pp. 38-47. p. 40.

victor, like the jainBuddha or Enlightened One, was held to have been an ordinary mortal man, who by his own pcnvcr had attained to omniscience and freedom, and out of pity for suffering mankind preached and declared the way of salvation which he had found.^ This doctrine, however, was too abstruse for the people, and in both cases the prophet himself gradually came to be deified, l-'urther, in order perhaps to furnish objects of worship less distinctively human and to whom a larger share of the attributes of deity could be imputed, in both religions a succession of mythical predecessors of the prophet was gradually brought into existence.

The Buddhists recognise twenty-five Buddhas or divine prophets, who appeared at long epochs of time and taught the same system one after another ; and the Jains have twenty-four Tirthakars or Tirthankars, who similarly taught their religion. Of these only Vardhamana, its real founder, who was the twenty-fourth, and possibly Parsva or Parasnath, the twenty-third and the founder's preceptor, are or may be historical. The other twenty-two Tirthakars are purely mythical.

The first, Rishaba, was born more than 100 billion years ago, as the son of a king of Ajodhya ; he lived more than 8 million years, and was 500 bow-lengths in height. He therefore is as superhuman as any god, and his date takes us back almost to eternity. The others succeeded each other at shorter intervals of time, and show a progressive decline in stature and length of life. The images of the Tirthakars are worshipped in the Jain temples like those of the Buddhas in Buddhist temples. As with Ikiddhism also, the main feature of Jain belief is the trans- migration of souls, and each successive incarnation depends on the sum of good and bad actions or karinan in the previous life.

They hold also the primitive animistic doctrine that souls exist not only in animals and plants but in stones, lumps of earth, drops of water, fire ami wind, and the human soul ma}- pass even into these if its sins condemn it to such a fate." The aim which Jainism, like l^uddhism, sets before its i- I'le disciples is the escape from the endless round of successive m'igration .of souls. ' The writer is inclined to doubt theism ; but the above is the view of whether either Buddhism or Jainism the best authorities. were really atheistic, and to think that they were perhaps rather forms of pan- ^ I'he Jaiitas, \i. 10.

existences, known as Samsara, through the extinction of the karman or sum of actions. This is attained by complete subjection of the passions and destruction of all desires and appetites of the body and mind, that is, by the most rigid asceticism, as well as by observing all the moral rules pre- scribed by the religion.

It was the J In a or prophet who showed this way of escape, and hence he is called Tirthakar or * The Finder of the Ford,' through the ocean of existence.^ But Jainism differs from Buddhism in that it holds that the soul, when finally emancipated, reaches a heaven and there continues for ever a separate intellectual existence, and is not absorbed into Nirvana or a state of blessed nothingness. 5 Strict The moral precepts of the Jains are of the same type as rules those of Buddhism and Vaishnavite Hinduism, but of an taking life, excessive rigidity, at any rate in the case of the Yatis or Jatis, the ascetics. They promise not to hurt, not to speak un- truths, to appropriate nothing to themselves without per- mission, to preserve chastity and to practise self-sacrifice. But these simple rules are extraordinarily expanded on the part of the Jains.

Thus, concerning the oath not to hurt, on which the Jains lay most emphasis : it prohibits not only the intentional killing or injuring of living beings, plants or the souls existing in dead matter, but requires also the utmost carefulness in the whole manner of life, and a watchfulness also over all movements and functions of the body by which anything living might be hurt.

It demands, finally, strict watch over the heart and tongue, and the avoid- ance of all thoughts and words which might lead to disputes and quarrels, and thereby do harm. In like manner the rule of sacrifice requires not only that the ascetic should have no houses or possessions, but he must also acquire a complete unconcern towards agreeable or disagreeable im- pressions, and destroy all feelings of attachment to anything living or dead." Similarly, death by voluntary starvation is prescribed for those ascetics who have reached the Kewalin or brightest stage of knowledge, as the means of entering their heaven. Owing to the late date of the Jain scriptures, any or all of its doctrines may have been adopted from l^uddhism between the commencement of the two religions

and the time when they were compiled. The Jains did not definitely abolish caste, and hence escaped the persecution to which Buddhism was subjected during the period of its decline from the fifth or sixth century A.i). On account of this trouble many Buddhists became Jains, and hence a further fusion of the doctrines of the rival sects may have ensued. The Digambara sect of Jains agree with the Buddhists in holding that women cannot attain Nirvana or heaven, while the Swetambara sect say that they can, and also admit women as nuns into the ascetic order. The Jain scripture, the Yogashastra, speaks of women as the lamps that burn on the road that leads to the gates of hell.

The Jains are divided into the above two principal sects, 6. Jain the Digambara and the Swetambara. The Digambara are ^'^'^'^' the more numerous and the stricter sect. According to their tenets death by voluntary starvation is necessary for ascetics who would attain heaven, though of course the rule is not now observed. The name Digambara signifies sky-clad, and Swetambara white - clad. Formerly the Digambara ascetics went naked, and were the gymnosophists of the Greek writers, but now they take off their clothes, if at all, only at meals. The theory of the origin of the two sects is that Parasnath, the twenty-third Tirthakar, wore clothes, while Mahavira the twenty-fourth did not, and the two sects follow their respective examples. The Digambaras now wear ochre-coloured cloth, and the Swetambaras white.

The principal difference at present is that the images in Digambara temples are naked and bare, while those of the Swetambaras are clothed, presumably in white, and also decorated with jewellery and ornaments. The Digambara ascetics may not use vessels for cooking or holding their food, but must take it in their hands from their disciples and eat it thus ; while the Swetambara ascetics may use vessels. The Digambara, however, do not consider the straining-cloth, brush, and gauze before the mouth essential to the character of an ascetic, while the Swetambara insist on them. There is in the Central Provinces another small sect called Channagri or Samaiya, and known elsewhere as Dhundia. These do not put images in their temples at all, but only copies of the Jain sacred books, and pay reverence

to them. They will, -however, worship in regular Jain temples at places where there are none of their own. 7. Jain The initiation of a Yati or Jati, a Jain ascetic, is thus ascetics, described : It is frequent for Banias who have no children to vow that their first-born shall be a Yati. Such a boy serves a novitiate with a guru or preceptor, and performs for him domestic offices ; and when he is old enough and has made progress in his studies he is initiated. P'or this purpose the novice is carried out of the tower with music and rejoicing in procession, followed by a crowd of Sravakas or Jain laymen, and taken underneath the banyan, or any other tree the juice of which is milky.

His hair is pulled out at the roots with five pulls ; camphor, musk, sandal, saffron and sugar are applied to the scalp ; and he is then placed before his guru, stripped of his clothes and with his hands joined. A text is whispered in his ear by the guru, and he is invested with the clothes peculiar to Yatis ; two cloths, a blanket and a staff; a plate for his victuals and a cloth to tie them up in ; a piece of gauze to tie over his mouth to prevent the entry of insects ; a cloth through which to strain his drinking-water to the same end ; and a broom made of cotton threads or peacock feathers to sweep the ground before him as he walks, so that his foot may not crush any living thing.

The duty of the Yati is to read and explain the sacred books to the Sravakas morning and evening, such functions being known as Sandhya. His food consists of all kinds of grain, vegetables and fruit produced above the earth ; but no roots such as yams or onions. Milk and g/il are permitted, but butter and honey are prohibited. Some strict Yatis drink no water but what has been first boiled, lest they should inadvertently destroy any insect, it being less criminal to boil them than to destroy them in the drinker's stomach. A Yati having renounced the world and all civil duties can have no family, nor does he perform any office of mourning or rejoicing.^ A Yati was directed to travel about begging and preaching for eight months in the year, and during the four rainy months to reside in some village or town and observe a fast. The rules of conduct to be observed by him were extremely

Beinrosc, Collp., Derby. JAIN ASCETICS WITH CLOTH BEFORE MOUTH AND SWEEPING-BRUSH.

strict, as has already been seen. Those who observed them successfully were believed to acquire miraculous powers. He who was a Siddh or victor, and had overcome his Karma or the sum of his human actions and affections, could read the thoughts of others and foretell the future. He who had attained Kewalgyan, or the state of perfect knowledge which preceded the emancipation of the soul and its absorption into paradise, was a god on earth, and even the gods worshipped him. Wherever he went all plants burst into flower and brought forth fruit, whether it was their season or not. In his presence no animal bore enmity to another or tried to kill it, but all animals lived peaceably together. This was the state attained to by each Tirthakar during his last sojourn on earth. The number of Jain ascetics seems now to be less than formerly and they are not often met with, at least in the Central Provinces. They do not usually perform the function of temple priest.

Practically all the Jains in the Central Provinces are of s. Jain the Bania caste. There is a small subcaste of Jain Kalars, subcastes •' 'of Banias. but these are said to have gone back to Hinduism. Of the Bania subcastes who are Jains the principal are the Parwar, Golapurab, Oswal and Saitwal. Saraogi, the name for a Jain layman, and Charnagar, a sect of Jains, are also returned as subcastes of Jain Banias. Other important subcastes of Banias, as the Agarwal and Maheshri, have a Jain section. Nearly all Banias belong to the Digambara sect, but the Oswal are Swetambaras.

They are said to have been originally Rajpiits of Os or Osnagar in Rajputana, and while they were yet Rajputs a Swetambara ascetic sucked the poison from the wound of an Oswal boy whom a snake had bitten, and this induced the community to join the Swetambara sect of the Jains."' The Jain laity are known as Shrawak or Saraogi, learners. 9. Rules There is comparatively little to distinguish them from their ^^g^J^^g oc Hindu brethren. Their principal tenet is to avoid the the laity, destruction of all animal, including insect life, but the Hindu Banias are practically all Vaishnavas, and observe

lo. Con- nection with Hinduism. almost the same tenderness for animal life as the Jains. The Jains are distinguished by their separate temples and method of worship, and they do not recognise the authority of the Vedas nor revere the lingajii of Siva. Consequently they do not use the Hindu sacred texts at their weddings, but repeat some verses from their own scriptures. These weddings arc said to be more in the nature of a civil contract than of a religious ceremony. The bride and bridegroom walk seven times round the sacred post and are then seated on a platform and promise to observe certain rules of conduct towards each other and avoid offences. It is said that formerly a Jain bride was locked up in a temple for the first night and considered to be the bride of the god. But as scandals arose from this custom, she is now only locked up for a minute or two and then let out again. Jain boys are in- vested with the sacred thread on the occasion of their weddings or at twenty-one or twenty-two if they are still unmarried at that age.

The thread is renewed annually on the day before the full moon of Bhadon (August), after a ten days' fast in honour of Anant Nath Tirthakar. The thread is m.ade by the Jain priests of tree cotton and has three knots. At their funerals the Jains do not shave the moustaches off as a rule, and they never shave the choti or scalp-lock, which they wear like Hindus. They give a feast to the caste- fellows and distribute money in charity, but do not perform the Hindu sJirdddJi or offering of sacrificial cakes to the dead. The Agarwal andKhandelwal Jains, however, invoke the spirits of their ancestors at weddings. Traces of an old hostility be- tween Jains and Hindus survive in the Hindu saying that one should not take refuge in a Jain temple, even to escape from a mad elephant ; and in the rule that a Jain beggar will not take alms from a Hindu unless he can perform some service in return, though it may not equal the value of the alms.

In other respects the Jains closely resemble the Hindus. Brahmans are often employed at their weddings, they reverence the cow, worship sometimes in Hindu temples, go on pilgrim- ages to the Hindu sacred places, and follow the Hindu law of inheritance. The Agarwal Bania Jains and Hindus will take food cooked with water together and intermarry in Ikjndclkhand, although it is doubtful whether they do this

in the Central Provinces. In such a case each party pays a fine to the Jain temple fund. In respect of caste distinctions the Jains are now scarcely less strict than the Hindus. The different Jain subcastes of Banias coming from Bundelkhand will take food together as a rule, and those from Marwar will do the same. The Khandelwal and Oswal Jain Banias will take food cooked with water together when it has been cooked by an old woman past the age of child-bearing, but not that cooked by a young woman.

The spread of educa- tion has awakened an increased interest among the Jains in their scriptures and the tenets of their religion, and it is quite likely that the tendency to conform to Hinduism in caste matters and ceremonies may receive a check on this account.^ The Jains display great zeal in the construction of temples n. in which the images of the Tirthakars are enshrined. The '^'-"P^'^^ and car • temples are commonly of the same fashion as those of the festival. Hindus, with a short, roughly conical spire tapering to a point at the apex, but they are frequently adorned with rich carved stone and woodwork. There are fine collections of temples at Muktagiri in Betul, Kundalpur in Damoh, and at Mount Abu, Girnar, the hill of Parasnath in Chota Nagpur, and other places in India. The best Jain temples are often found in very remote spots, and it is suggested that they were built at times when the Jains had to hide in such places to avoid Hindu persecution. And wherever a community of Jain merchants of any size has been settled for a generation or more several fine temples will probably be found.

A Jain Bania who has grown rich considers the building of one or more temples to be the best method of expending his money and acquiring religious merit, and some of them spend all their fortune in this manner before their death. At the opening of a new temple the ratli or chariot festival should be held. Wooden cars are made, sometimes as much as five stories high, and furnished with chambers for the images of the Tirthakars. In these the idols of the hosts and all the guests are placed. Each car should be drawn by two elephants, and the pro- cession of cars moves seven times round the temple or pavilion erected for the ceremony. For building a temple 1 Mr. Marten's Central Provinces Census Report, 191 1. of the Tirthakars

and performing this ceremony honorary and hereditary titles are conferred. Those who do it once receive the designation of Singhai ; for carrying it out twice they become Sawai Singhai ; and on a third occasion Seth. In such a ceremony performed at Khurai in Saugor one of the participators was already a Seth, and in recognition of his great liberality a new title was devised and he became Srimant Seth.

It is said, however, that if the car breaks and the elephants refuse to move, the title becomes derisive and is either ' Lule Singhai,' the lame one, or ' Arku Singhai,' the stumbler. If no elephants are available and the car has to be dragged by men, the title given is Kadhore Singhai. Images In the temples are placed the images of Tirthakars, either of brass, marble, silver or gold. The images may be small or life-size or larger, and the deities are represented in a sitting posture with their legs crossed and their hands lying upturned in front, the right over the left, in the final attitude of contemplation prior to escape from the body and attain- ment of paradise.

There may be several images in one temple, but usually there is only one, though a number of temples are built adjoining each other or round a courtyard. The favourite Tirthakars found in temples are Rishab Deva, the first; Anantnath, the fourteenth; Santnath, the sixteenth; Nemnath, the twenty-second ; Parasnath, the twenty-third ; and Vardhamana or Mahavira, the twenty-fourth.^ As already stated only Mahavira and perhaps Parasnath, his preceptor, were real historical personages, and the remainder are mythical. It is noticeable that to each of the Tirthakars is attached a symbol, usually in the shape of an animal, and also a tree, apparently that tree under which the Tirthakar is held to have been seated at the time that he obtained release from the body. And these animals and trees are in most cases those which are also revered and held sacred by the Hindus.

Thus the sacred animal of Rishab Deva is the bull, and his tree the banyan ; that of Anantnath is the falcon or bear, and his tree the holy Asoka ; " that of Santnath is the black-buck or Indian antelope, and his tree the tun or cedar ; ^ the symbol of Nemnath is the conch ' The particulars about the Tirthakars and the animals and trees associated with them are taken from The Jainas. - Jonesia Asoka. ^ Qedrela (oona.

shell (sacred to Vishnu), but his tree, the vciasa, is not known ; the animal of Parasnath is the serpent or cobra and his tree the dhdtaki ; ^ and the animal of Mahfivlra is the lion or tiger and his tree the teak tree. Among the symbols of the other Tirthakars are the elephant, horse, rhinoceros, boar, ape, the Brahmani duck, the moon, the pipal tree, the lotus and the swasiik figure ; and among their trees the mango, \.\\Q jdviun'^ and the chaiiipak? Most of these animals and trees are sacred to the Hindus, and the elephant, boar, ape, cobra and tiger were formerly worshipped themselves, and are now attached to the principal Hindu gods. Similarly the asoka, pipal, banyan and mango trees are sacred, and also the Brahmani duck and the swastik sign.

It cannot be supposed that the Tirthakars simply represent the deified anthropomorphic emanations from these animals, because the object of Vardhamana's preaching was perhaps like that of Buddha to do away with the promiscuous polytheism of the Hindu religion. But nevertheless the association of the sacred animals and trees with the Tirthakars furnished a strong connecting link between them and the Hindu gods, and considerably lessens the opposition between the two systems of worship. The god Indra is also frequently found sculptured as an attendant guardian in the Jain temples. The fourteenth Tirthakar, Anantnath, is especially revered by the people because he is identified with Gautama Buddha. The priest of a Jain temple is not usually a Yati or 13. Reiigi- ascetic, but an ordinary member of the community. He receives no remuneration and carries on his business at the same time.

He must know the Jain scriptures, and makes recitations from them when the worshippers are assembled. The Jain will ordinarily visit a temple and see the god every morning before taking his food, and his wife often goes with him. If there is no temple in their own town or village they will go to another, provided that it is within a practicable distance. The offerings made at the temple consist of rice, almonds, cocoanuts, betel-leaves, areca, dates, cardamoms, cloves and similar articles. These are appropriated by the Hindu Mali or gardener, who is the menial servant em- 1 Griska tomeutosa. ^ Eitgeiiia jambolana. 3 Michelia champaka. ous observ-

ployed to keep the temple and enclosures clean.

The Jain will not take back or consume himself anything which has been offered to the god. Offerings of money are also made, and these go into the bhanddr or fund for maintenance of the temple.

The Jains observe fasts for the last week before the new moon in the months of Phagun (February), Asarh (June) and Kartik (October). They also fast on the second, fifth, eighth, eleventh and fourteenth days in each fortnight of the four months of the rains from Asarh to Kartik, this being in lieu of the more rigorous fast of the ascetics during the rains. On these days they eat only once, and do not eat any green vegetables. After the week's fast at the end of Kartik, at the commencement of the month of Aghan, the Jains begin to eat all green vegetables. 14, Ten- The great regard for animal life is the most marked animal life, feature of the Jain religion among the laity as well as the clergy. The former do not go to such extremes as the latter, but make it a practice not to eat food after sunset or before sunrise, owing to the danger of swallowing insects.

Now that their beliefs are becoming more rational, however, and the irksome nature of this rule is felt, they sometim.es place a lamp with a sieve over it to produce rays of light, and consider that this serves as a substitute for the sun. For- merly they maintained animal hospitals in which all kinds of animals and reptiles, including monkeys, poultry and other birds were kept and fed, and any which had broken a limb or sustained other injuries were admitted and treated.

These were known as pinjrapol or places of protection.^ A similar institution was named jivuti, and consisted of a small domed building with a hole at the top large enough for a man to creep in, and here weevils and other insects which the Jains might find in their food were kept and pro- vided with grain.' In Rajputana, where rich Jains probably had much influence, considerable deference was paid to their objections to the death of any living thing. Thus a Mewar edict of A.D. 1693 directed that no one might carry animals for slaughter past their temples or houses. Any man or ' Crooke, Things Indian, art. Pinjrapol. - Moor, Hindu Infanticide, p. 1S4. rase, Collo., Derhy.

animal led past a Jain house for the purpose of being killed was thereby saved and set at liberty. Traitors, robbers or escaped prisoners who fled for sanctuary to the dwelling of a Jain Yati or ascetic could not be seized there by the officers of the court.

And during the four rainy months, when insects were most common, the potter's wheel and Teli's oil- press might not be worked on account of the number of insects which would be destroyed by them.^ As they are nearly all of the Bania caste the Jains are 15. Social usually prosperous, and considering its small size, the standard '^o"^'"°" of wealth in the community is probably very high for India, Jains, the total number of Jains in the country being about half a million. Beggars are rare, and, like the Parsis and Europeans, the Jains feeling themselves a small isolated body in the midst of a large alien population, have a special tenderness for their poorer members, and help them in more than the ordinary degree.

Most of the Jain Banias are grain-dealers and moneylenders like other Banias. Cultivation is pro- hibited by their religion, owing to the destruction of animal life which it involves, but in Saugor, and also in the north of India, many of them have now taken to it, and some plough with their own hands. Mr. Marten notes " that the Jains are beginning to put their wealth to a more practical purpose than the lavish erection and adornment of temples.

Schools and boarding-houses for boys and girls of their religion are being opened, and they subscribe liberally for the building of medical institutions. It may be hoped that this movement will continue and gather strength, both for the advantage of the Jains themselves and the country generally. 1 Rdjasthdn, vol. i. p. 449, and pp. 696, 697, App. 2 Central Provimes CeJistis Report, 191 1.

Anekant

A Lotus Of Many Layered Petals

The Times of India, Apr 20 2016

Sudhamahi Regunathan

Anekanta: Lotus Of Many Layered Petals  According to Jaina metaphysics, it is matter that defines existence.

Every object has an origin. For example, a pot has its origin in clay. One day the pot breaks. That marks the end of the pot. But that which is permanent is the clay with which the pot was made.That remains.

What remains as it is and does not pass away is eternal. We are born, we die, but the permanent aspect, our soul, lives on to be born again or liberated.The dravya or matter, which is the clay in the example of the pot, is permanent.That which is nitya or permanent is dravya. That which is anitya or impermanent is paryaya or a mode. The Tatvartha Sutra defines dravya in the following manner: `That which possesses qualities and modes is a substance.' According to Mahavira, the fundamental substances are the pancha astikayas or five `collective groups' or `extended substances'. These five substances are: dharma astikaya, adharma astikaya, akash astikaya, jiva astikaya and pudgal astikaya. The Tatvartha Sutra says some teachers also consider time to be the sixth astikaya.

Dharma astikaya is the medium that facilitates all movement in this world.And yet, you have to stop typing periodically to refer, to correct, to think, to erase, to take a break.If dharma astikaya alone were in operation, you would never be able to stop. Adharma astikaya is the medium of rest.It is because of the collection of atoms belonging to the adharma astikaya variety that you are able to stop when you wish to.

The akash astikaya is space consisting of two sections ­ loka or this universe and aloka or space outside this universe. These three astikayas do not change. The variety in the world owes itself to pudgal astikaya and jiva astikaya.

That is the contention of anekanta: the source as the permanent, creation and destruction as constant, ongoing processes.

Of course, the question will not be late in coming: What is the distinguishing feature of the soul? The soul has consciousness, which matter does not have. Soul has knowledge: `Je aaya se vinnayya, je vinnayya se ayya' ­ the soul knows, the knower is the soul. Karmic material, matter that adheres to the soul, is associated with form and colour.

The Tatvartha Sutra goes on to say, `Arpita narpita-siddheh' ­ the ungrasped (unnoticed) aspect of an object is attested by the grasped (noticed) one. This is a beautiful sutra. How would you know something was ugly? Because you know it is not beautiful.How would you know there is silence? Because there is no sound. Opposites are integral to the whole. Coexistence of opposites is the principle of anekanta. Darkness is understood only because of light.

This brings us to the next idea inherent in the principle of anekanta: the dominance of one aspect at any given time. In a given situation, when objects have infinite attributes, one of them will be primary and the rest, secondary . One attribute will be manifest while others will be unmanifest.In nature, a similar situation exists; when man walks, the rule is one foot goes ahead and the other follows.

Since truth is multidimensional, it is not possible for us to comprehend it all.

Anekanta is like a lotus; although its petals are laid out in many layers, they form a single flower. It embodies different concepts complete with their partners in opposites.

The Multiple Aspects of Truth

Acharya Lokesh Muni, December 12, 2018: The Times of India

According to Jainism, no single, specific statement can describe the nature of existence and the absolute truth. Anekanta states that the ultimate truth and reality is complex and has multiple aspects. As we know, life is very complex and nothing is permanent in our life.

Everything comes in pairs – happiness and sorrow, life and death, loss and gain and even our chromosomes come in pairs. So we need to respect and be in sync with nature to remain happy and steady. A true follower of the Jain anekanta principle would also follow nature. Every coin has two sides, every situation has two perspectives, but if we only want the good side, that is not possible. To live a happy, poised, motivated and strong life we have to cope with all situations and follow the principle of anekanta.

Equality and balance are very important. We have to balance our personal and professional lives and spend equal time and concern to both. When there is something positive, there is bound to be the negative side as well. Both the positive and negative balance each other out; this is so in science as well. We need to understand and accept this fact of life and strive to strike a balance. Once we become aware of this, our life will become less difficult; it will be smoother.

If you make yourself think that sorrow is the dominant part of your life, then you will be unable to cope with all this stress and you end up becoming stressed for your whole life, because you overemphasise on this one aspect and neglect the other side, that is, happiness. So, we have to go parallel with both the things – happiness and sadness.

In anekanta, all rules are related to each other. Nothing is independent. Every rule and fact has its own limitation. We always think that religion and meditation can control or remove all the problems in our life. But this is a myth only. Even religion and meditation are bound by some limitations. We cannot overstretch any situation. We have to know our limits. The main mantra of anekanta is, “Everything has its own limits.”

A group of sages were meditating in the lap of the Himalayas and they all fell ill despite the fact that these sages were so powerful and were practising higher meditation to improve their mental health. Then why did they fall ill? Sage Bhardwaj searched for the reason and informed Indra that these sages fell ill due to poor nutrition. Even the greatest sages need food and water for survival. If our physical health fails, then our mental health is also affected. So, meditation also has its own limits. All things are interconnected whether it is meditation, religion or mental and social health.

Anekanta says that nothing can happen due to only one thing. All things are related to each other. Always remember that every meditation, every work has its own limits. Everything that is present in this world is interconnected to each other. If we can understand this thing then there is no problem in our life. To lead a successful and peaceful life we should have the ability to discriminate and to understand the true and genuine facts of nature.

Converts to Jainism

2005-20: Converts from Japan

Hemali Chhapia, February 23, 2020: The Times of India

Zen no more. It’s Jain. Wrapped in white loin cloth, they chant the navkar mantra, follow dietary self-abnegation, wake up with the sun, consume only warm water, meditate for hours in derasars (Jain temple) and dine before the sun sets. Thousands of Japanese are turning to Jainism. Apart from living like astute Jains, their calendars are marked for an annual pilgrimage to India where they spend weeks studying Jain script under learned monks.

The charming Naganoken town, home to the seventh century Zenko-ji temple with a hidden Buddha, sees hundreds of Japanese nationals travel to Palitana and Shankheswar to embrace Jainism every year. Churushi Miyazawa came as a traveller in 2005 and her first meeting with Gachadhipati Swargiya Jayantsen Suriswarji Maharaj Saheb, a senior monk, charmed her into the religion. Such was the appeal that she decided to shed her past, lead a minimalistic life, give up the comforts she earlier soaked in and vow to live like a Jain.

Thus was born Tulsi. Churushi wanted to take deeksha (renunciation) and would brook no opposition. “My guru entrusted me with a bigger task: To spread Jainism across Japan. Since then I have been travelling to India four to five time a year with hundreds of Japanese who are ready to embrace Jainism,” Tulsi told TOI from Japan. After Naganoken, the popularity of Jainism is spreading in Osaka and Tokyo too.

‘Appeal of ahimsa has found a connect with us’

Not only have thousands of Japanese turned to Jainism, many are readying themselves to take up monkhood. Under conventional practice, initiation into monkhood comes after immense training. The initiates live with monks in temples and the preparatory phase can last anywhere between six months and 10 years, says Babulal Jain-Ujwal, a veritable fount of information on Jainism.

Just a month ago, 2,500 Japanese travelled to Tharad in northern Gujarat and spent a week there with the disciples of Jayant Sensuriswarji Maharaj Saheb. “There are a number of Japanese coming here in large numbers. They follow all our rules, pray with us, eat Satvik food before the sun sets, mediate and go back home to follow the same lifestyle we induct them into,” says Nityasen Suriswarji Maharaj Saheb.

Next week, too, if travel restrictions are relaxed, another group of Japanese nationals is travelling to Gujarat. To understand the intricacies of the religious texts, most of them are also taking Hindi tutorials, says Jain-Ujwal. “A new temple is being planned in Japan and now we are told there are more than 5,000 families are newly inducted into Jainism,” he adds.

The Japanese follow the eight-day holy festival of Paryushan too. “There they fast for eight days (atthai) by merely consuming warm water. Even children follow Paryushan and keep fasts for a day or two,” says Tusi. “The appeal of ahimsa or non violence propounded by Jainism has found a connect with all of us.”

Nature and ecology

Conservation And Religion

WWF-India, Network On Conservation And Religion, April 20, 2019: The Times of India

Jainism is fundamentally a religion of ecology and has turned ecology into a religion. It has enabled Jains to create an environment-friendly value system and code of conduct. Because of the insistence on rationality in the Jain tradition, Jains are always ready and willing to look positively and with enthusiasm upon environmental causes. In India and abroad, they are in the forefront of bringing greater awareness and putting into practice their cardinal principles of ecology. Their programmes have been modest and mostly self-funded through volunteers.

Although Jainism is one of the oldest religions, it is among the most recent to join the league of other great religions of the world for the preservation and maintenance of ecological balance. It became the eighth faith of the world to submit a Declaration on Nature and thus join the WWF Network on Conservation and Religion. All faiths in the Network have categorically stated that their beliefs lead them to conservation.

The Jain Declaration on Nature highlights the gist of Jainism:

Parasparopagraho jivanam: ‘All life is bound together by mutual support and interdependence.’ It is an aphorism from the Tattvartha-Sutra, the standard sacred text of Jainism. It defines the scope of modern ecology as it stresses the fundamental principle that all aspects of nature belong together and are bound in a physical as well as metaphysical relationship. Samyaktva: This stresses the observance of equanimity to animate and inanimate substances and objects. Its practice encourages an attitude of give and take and of live and let live. It also offers a pragmatic peace plan based not on the domination of mature but on an equanimity of mind devoted to the preservation of the balance of the universe. Jivadaya: This promotes compassion towards all living beings; it is the positive aspect of the principle of Ahimsa and it means caring for all living beings, tending, protecting and serving them. It entails universal friendliness, forgiveness and fearlessness. Its observance leads to actions that have great relevance to contemporary environmental concerns.

Human beings possess rationality and intuition. As a highly evolved form of life, they have a moral responsibility in their mutual dealings and in their relationship with the rest of the universe. Hence, this conception of life, in which human beings have an ethical responsibility, has made the Jain tradition a cradle for the creed of environmental protection and harmony.

The presentation of the Jain declaration on Nature evidenced the beginning of Jains reuniting themselves, worldwide. The philosophy of Tirthankara Mahavira goes beyond the principles of modern science; it teaches us to live a life that allows all elements of nature to remain in peace and harmony, without fear. Fearlessness is the foundation of supreme truth. It is rooted in non-violence. The present state of the earth is spoilt and deformed. Only through non-violence can we survive.

The Institute of Jainology was instrumental in forging worldwide unity of Jains on basic issues of the Jain tradition and on the highest priority of environmental issues. It has resulted in greater ecological awareness and responsibility amongst Jains. It has embarked modestly on several programmes and has encouraged many other programmes after the Declaration on Nature prepared and presented on behalf of all the Jains of the world. These initiatives have been well received by Jain communities through out the world.

(Abridged from ‘Religion and Conservation,’ Full Circle).

Rishabhdev, the first Tirthankar

JK Jain, January 21, 2023: The Times of India

As per Jain cosmology, universe is Anadi-nidhan, eternal. The two time-cycles, Utsarpini, in which all good things – knowledge, happiness, life span, stature – are in ascending order, and Avsarpini, during which all these are in descending order, when joined together, make one rotation of the time wheel called Kalpa. At the end of Avsarpini, all living beings, except a few, are destroyed. Thereafter, Utsarpini cycle starts and human beings, animals, birds and vegetation start taking birth.


Avsarpini begins with the Bhogbhumi system where nobody needs to do anything and all requirements like food, clothing, and housing are provided by the Kalpavriskha, wish-fulfilling tree. Gradually, the power of Kalpavriksha recedes and people start suffering. At this juncture, Karmbhumi system starts and Tirthankars take birth to educate people how to earn their livelihood.

Rishabhdev was the first Tirthankar, and he imparted the knowledge of Shat Awashayak, six essential activities: Asi – fighting skills to protect self and others, Masi – writing; Krishi – agriculture to produce foodgrain and vegetables; Vanijya – trade; Vidya – acquiring knowledge and teaching others; and Shilpa – crafts and asked people to adopt an activity of their choice, irrespective of their origin.

Bharat, the eldest son of Rishabhdev, is said to be the first Chakravorty, the one who conquered the whole world. The Jains believe that our country is called Bharat after him. Rishabhdev had two daughters. To his daughter called Sundari, he taught Anka-kala, knowledge of numbers, and to Brahmi, the other daughter, he imparted Akshar-kala, knowledge of alphabets. And since Rishabhdev initiated all worldly activities, he is called Brahma, the creator of Srishti.

In his life span of 84 lacs purvas, equivalent to 84,00,000 x 84,00,000 x 84,00,000 years, Rishabhdev ruled Ayodhya for 83 lacs purvas. During his rule, crime was negligible. And reprimands such as ‘Haa’ – oh, what have you done, to the first-time offender; ‘Maa’ – don’t do this, to the second timer; and ‘Dhik’ – shame on you, to the third-time culprit, were sufficient to reform them and deter others from committing any crime.

Rishabhdev later became an ascetic. After rigorous penance of 1,000 years, he attained Kaivalya Jnana – omniscience, and preached the universal principles of satya, truth; ahimsa, non-violence; achaurya, non-stealing; aparigriha, non-possession; and sheel-brahmacharya, celibacy.

The first Jain Tirthankar is also called Vishnu, preserver of the world, as he was the first to declare that plants and trees also have life and urged people to protect all species, including microorganisms present in earth, water, fire, air and vegetation.

Rishabhdev attained nirvana, salvation, at Mt Kailash, putting an end to his cycle of birth and death. Since he completely destroyed his karmas and their bondages, he is also Mahesh, Shiv, the destroyer of Srishti.

In Vedic culture, the holy trinity – Brahma, Vishnu, and Mahesh – are considered different entities, but in Jain belief system, the triumvirate is none other than Rishabhdev, who is also the originator of Jainism, not Mahavir, as many believe.

Saptabhangi Naya, Syadvad

Reality

Deepak Ranade, January 19, 2023: The Times of India

Our perception of the world we live in is based on physical realism – a conviction that the physical world we see is real and exists by itself. The evolution of scientific thought and Quantum Physics, in particular, has forced us to review our understanding of physical realism. Quantum theory consistently works, but it does predict particles that entangle, waves that superpose and then yet again collapse to a point. Such phenomena are physically impossible and are ‘imaginary’. Paradoxically, we have a theory of what doesn’t exist, to successfully predict what does. A virtuality to understand and explain reality?


Saptabhangi Naya, Syadvad, is an important ideology of the Jain philosophy.


Syadvad alludes to the relativity of knowledge and perception of reality. It proposes seven scenarios or interpretations of reality: it exists; it does not exist; it exists and does not exist simultaneously; it exists, but can’t be asserted; it does not exist and cannot be asserted; it exists, it simultaneously does not exist, and it cannot be asserted, and it can never be asserted. The first three are fundamental coefficients of reality. Totally subjective. Either it exists, or it doesn’t, or then it is both simultaneously.

The last four are observerbased attributes, where the Reality is in relation to an observer and becomes objective. Western philosophers were also making forays in determining the existence of a Reality. Solipsism was first recorded by Gorgias, a Greek thinker, who stated: Nothing exists. Even if something exists, nothing can be known about it. Even if something could be known about it, knowledge about it can’t be communicated to others.

The Sophists believed that ‘objective’ knowledge of Reality was a literal impossibility. Does reality really exist? If it is indeed objective, then it ought to exist independent of the ‘perceiver’. But if the perceiver is part of the reality, then reality will have to be a phenomenon that will have to be apperceived. Apperception is ‘the introspective or reflective apprehension by the mind of its own inner states’. Immanuel Kant called this transcendental apperception in which perception of an object involved the consciousness of the pure self as subject. Our understanding and comprehension of all that ‘exists’ is based on sensory cognition. Our conviction in the truth of the universe we inhabit relies on the tangibility and uniformity of our cognitive faculties. This tangibility could just be a programme of the neural networks.

Quantum Physics unambiguously declares the primacy of the observer for the universe to assert and establish its existence. Can the universe and/or an unchanging reality exist a priori? Could it be a highly consistent projection on the screen of a conscious observer?

Aprojected image would certainly fulfil the criterion of the Saptabhangi. It exists, it does not exist, it simultaneously exists and also not exist. In the absence of a conscious observer, it might exist, it might not, might do both simultaneously, but could never be ascertained. If the Self contains as also manifests as the universe, then the only reality that exists is the Upanishadic truth ‘Aham Brahmasami’ – I, the Self, am the source, the creator, and observer of this entire Universe.

The writer is a neurosurgeon and faculty at the MIT-WPU School of Consciousness Studies, Pune

Tenets

Tri-ratn: knowledge, faith, conduct

ASHOK VOHRA, Three Jain Ways To Optimise Human Conduct, December 20, 2018: The Times of India

In Jainism, jnana, knowledge; darshan, faith; and charitra, conduct, form an organic whole. They are called the triratnas, the three jewels. The rise or decline in one influences the rise or decline of the other two. Harmonious development of all three leads to the fourfold perfection, that is, ananta – infinite knowledge, infinite faith, infinite power and infinite bliss. The attainment of these fourfold perfections is liberation. Unquestionable faith in the Tirthankaras’ teachings generates knowledge, which in turn gives rise to conduct. Faith, knowledge and conduct are interconnected because faith and knowledge without conduct are empty and conduct without knowledge and faith is blind. So, the ultimate aim of faith and knowledge is to improve human conduct.

To optimise human conduct, Jainism prescribes five cardinal vows called the pancha mahavratas, the five great vows. The five vows are: ahimsa, non-violence; satya, truth; asteya, non-stealing; brahmacharya, celibacy; and aparigraha, non-attachment.

Ahimsa means non-injury to all forms of life in thought, word and deed. That plants have life, was known to the Jainas, much before Jagdish Chandra Bose discovered and proved it, scientifically. That is why the Jaina notion of ahimsa included injury not only to plants but also to single-celled organisms.

The justification of ahimsa has its roots in Jaina metaphysical belief in the absolute equality of all beings. A soul, howsoever lower down in the scale of evolution it might be, can become as great as any other soul. Jainas uphold that not only human beings, even the primates have the potential to become a siddha, liberated being. So himsa, violence, to any being, is not justified.

Satya, or truthfulness, is ‘abstinence from falsehood’. This vow means speaking the truth in a pleasant manner, creating goodwill. It does not disturb the harmony nor produce malice and frivolity. Such truth is called sunrita. Prerequisites for fulfilling the vow of truth are, overcoming greed, fear, triviality and anger.

Asteya means not stealing others’ wealth. It also means not appropriating in word, deed and thought, what one is not entitled to. Jainas regard wealth as an essential condition for life. So, to illegally take someone’s wealth is to deprive him of his life.

Brahmacharya means refraining from self-indulgence in all its forms – ‘external and internal; subtle and gross; mundane and frivolous; direct and indirect’. Even the hope of enjoyment in heaven in the afterlife or the thought of any carnal desire is violation of the vow of brahmacharya.

Aparigraha means non-attachment. It is the renunciation of worldly objects. Attachment is the cause of bondage. Cessation of attachment to objects of senses – smell, taste, touch, pleasant sounds or music and colour – leads to liberation. Jainism does not make a distinction between monk and layperson as far as the code of conduct is concerned. It prescribes the same code of conduct for everyone. Whereas the vows, when practised by monks, are called mahavratas, the vows for the laity are called anuvratas, small vows. In the case of monks, they are practised rigorously in word and deed to the core. But in the case of laity, the vows are modified and relaxed. For example, ahimsa for them is limited to non-violence towards moving beings with more than two senses; brahmacharya is restricted to chastity, and aparigraha is limited to contentment.

(The writer teaches philosophy)

Transcendence

Acharya Yashovarmasuri, March 15, 2023: The Times of India

As laid down in the teachings of Jainism, Acharya Vijay Lakshmansurishvar became a votary of Ahimsa, non-violence. This universal philosophy was simplified into practical tenets through his lectures and books. His ‘Atmattavavichar’, for example, brings together dynamic concepts such as atman, soul; karma, action; and dharma, duty, in a step-by-step, easy-to-understand way. These teachings were originally aimed to empower and enable the sadhak as well as the householder to progress unhindered on the path of spiritual siddhi, transcendence.


The Acharya also referred to the other core philosophy of Jainism, namely, Anekantavad, non-absolutism. The core of the teaching is that to comprehend the real nature of anything, one should pay due regard to all points of view according to their merit. This comes vividly through the ancient parable of the elephant and theblind men. Citing the tale, the Acharya used to say anek, divergent, perspectives could be expressed to comprehend a singularity.


As for these transformative metaphors of the quest for spiritual meaningfulness, Acharya Vijay Lakshmansurishvar preferred to lead by example: He travelled more than 30,000 miles on foot for he himself adhered to the Nigranth Munis’ maxim – to travel the land; to spread the light of religion. 
While searching for spiritual insight, the sadhak, however, could not afford to neglect the physicality of existence. This calls for the creation of a balance between earthly existence and the trans-substantial dimension of the spirit. In this context, a follower once beseeched Lakshmansuriji for advice to cope with his own physical ill health. The sage cited a Sanskrit shlok: Doctors will cite animbalance in the triad of airs. Astrologers point to the stars, while a shaman might talk about possessions. But a sage will evoke karma, past deeds, expressed through Time’s Loom in the warp and weft of genes.


The result of karmas accumulated can, therefore, be difficult to endure. Thus, it is essential to remain mindful of our actions here and now, for they can certainly shape our future and determine the karmic consequences that we will face.


So, honourable seeker, strive to perform only those actions that will lead us towards a virtuous and fulfilling existence. How does one do so in practical terms? While our current situation may be somewhat predetermined by the past, we still have the ability to shape our future.


Jainism provides one such framework, involving the doctrine of Three Guptis toregulate actions. The first Mana Gupti entails regulating one’s mind, guarding against impure thoughts such as anger, hate, greed and ego; and devote your mind to pious meditation then.


Vachana Gupti regulates speech with mindfulness against harmful, harsh, or even embarrassing language. Lastly, Kaya Gupti regulates bodily activity by eschewing behaviour that hurts others and takes innocent lives, and by developing decent behaviour as an antidote. It is axiomatic that the three guptis are not exclusive to Jainism; they can be applied to any one of us, regardless of our beliefs, caste, creed, race, or situation. By being cautious in our actions and cultivating positive thoughts and behaviours, we can break the cycle of karmic bondage and create a better future for ourselves and those around us.