Distribution and Movement of Population in India, 1881-1931
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Scope of the Report
The area covered by the sixth general census of India is approximately identical with that covered by the census of 1921 and differs little from the area of previous occasions from 1881 onwards; 2,308 sq. miles containing some 34,000 inhabitants have been added in Burma and in the North of Assam, while on the other hand, six sq. miles have been lost to Nepal. The statistics therefore cover the whole empire of India with, Burma and the adjacent
islands and islets (Exclusive of Ceylon and the Maldives) as well as Aden and Perim Island, but not the Kuria Muria Islands* and Sokotra, which is part of the Aden Protectorate, administered from Aden on behalf of the Colonial Office, and not part of British India. The statistics the tables do not of course cover those parts of the peninsula, which are not parts of the British Empire, that is
size, part of which is well within the temperate zone while part is almost equatorial, the diversity of condition both of theopulation and of its environment must be very great indeed. Geologically, while the peninsula is one of the oldest of the world's formations, the Himalayas are one of the most recent. Not unnaturally therefore there is a great variety of physical feature, varying not only from the loftiest mountains of the world to flats salted by every tide, but from sandy deserts with a rainfall of five inches or less in a year in the north west to thickly wooded
evergreen hills which have never less than 100 inches and here and there get 500 inches of rain or even more in the east and south. Again in northern India there are extremes of temperature - 120 o of heat dropping to cold below freezing point, while in the south the temperature is almost static in its heats and humidity. As might be expected the physical features of the inhabitants are no less variable than those of their environments. Any haphazard collection of Indians will afford types of very different ethnic groups,
to say, Afghanistan, Nepal, Bhutan and the French and Portuguese possessions, the area and population of which, together with the rate of increase since 1921 where available, are shown in the marginal table. For the rest the scope of this census extended to the whole of the peninsula of India, forming what is commonly described as a sub continent between long. 61 o and 101 o E. and lat 6 o to 37 o N. Some information has also been included with regard to natives of India resident permanently or temporarily outside the Indian Empire or serving on the High Seas at the time the census was taken. Obliviously within an area of such
though the
composition would vary according to the locality. The number of languages, as classifieds by sir George Grierson in his Linguistic Survey of India and exclusive of dialects, is 225 by the returns of 1931. Creeds may be less numerous, but castes, customs and sects must be no peoples to be covered by this report present every aspect from that of the latest phase of western civilization to that of the most India, still exist by hunting and collecting forest produce without ever apparently of so large and diversified an area must, if it is to be contained in a volume, be of a superficial nature, leaving the closer examination of the figures and facts revealed by enumeration to the reports severally undertaken for each of the provinces and larger States.
Note : The population of these islands remains conjectural, and the only information that can be had about them was obtained in 1920 from the senior naval officers at Aden it is printed in part III of this Report, since, although out of date, it appears to be the latest information available. The question of the language of Sonora formerly perhaps written, but now a spoken language only, is of some interest, as are likewise habits and customs of the populations of these islands some of whom in Sonora are cave dwellers; it is therefore unfortunate from a scientific point of view that no investigation has ever apparently been made.
2.At the same time in spite of this great variety the existence for the most part of a uniform system of administration and of a fairly general distribution of the different racial types from which the population is drawn, together with a similar, if perhaps less even distribution of religious and social systems, contribute to give a certain uniformity, if not unity, to the whole, which in spite of local differences is obviously capable of national consciousness which increases with the spread of education. For the difficulty occasioned by great diversity in treating India as a whole is experienced likewise to a more limited extent in each in treating India as a whole is experienced likewise to a more limited extent in each Province and in most States, since the political boundaries have generally little relation to any other. The difficulty of dealing with the population question by natural divisions in thus greatly enhanced. Obviously the density of the population is in immediate relationship to the conformation of the soil, to the rainfall and to crops, all of which are inter dependent, but since the boundaries of administrative units run counter to the divisions of nature, any treatment of the population according to natural divisions is likely to involve the dissipation of figures returned by administrative units into a set of entirely different combinations. This has been attempted for India as a whole on some previous occasions, but the information obtained by such a treatment, however interesting academically, is of little or no administrative value. Demography by natural divisions therefore has been limited to the individual reports of provinces, since in some of the provinces and states the natural divisions are less diverse from divisions political than they are when India is treated as a whole, and within the administrative unit may even be of some practical application.
3. In addition to the actual population of India some attempt has been made to give information as to Indian nationals in other countries or on the High Seas. These figures are necessarily incomplete, but perhaps go further than they have done on previous occasions by including returns of Indian crews on ocean going vessels shipped during the eight months or so that preceded the final enumeration. Though not in India at the time of the census, these crews form a permanent part of the population visiting their homes from time to time and in many cases returning agriculture as a subsidiary occupation. Strictly speaking therefore, although the census in intention is one of the de facto population that is of the numbers found in India on February 26 th , 1931 and not as in the case of the United States, for instance, a de jure population, the terms of a census of actual population have not been observed with excessive punctuality. This indeed would have been impossible, since the remoteness of some parts of India, the difficulty of communications and limitations imposed be water, snow and wild animals make a completely synchronous enumeration of the whole
Distribution and Movement
4. The total area covered by this census amounts to 18 hundred thousands sq. Miles and the population inhabiting it to 353
millions giving a density for the whole area of 195 persons per sq. mile. This density however is a very variable factor appearing at the lowest as 6.5 persons per sq. mile in the mean density of Baluchistan, Chigai district of which has only one person to the square mile, and at its highest at about 2,000 persons per sq. mile in the most thickly
populated parts of the south west coast, the general density of Cochin State, including both the thickly populated coast lands and the
almost uninhabited highlands, being 814.2 persons per sq. mile and reaching in one village the amazing maximum found in any purely rural population of over 4,000 persons to the sq. mile. There is, however, in Bengal an even higher general level of density, since the Dacca Division has a mean density of 935 persons for a population of 13,864,104, and reaches a rural density 3,228 per. Sq. mile for a Lohajang thana, and a mean density of 2,413 for Munshiganj sub division which has an area of 294 sq. miles. Of the total population 256,859,787 represents the population of British India proper, the area of which is 862,679 sq. miles, and 81,310,845 that of the States with an area of 712,508 sq. miles. British India with Burma has a population of 271,526,933 and the proportion of the population of the states to British India is 23 to 77 when Burma is included. On the other hand if she be excluded it is 24 to 76. It has been already mentioned that the density of the population varies largely according to the rainfall and it may here be pointed out that in th e densest areas – those of Cochin, of eastern Bengal, the north east of the united provinces and of Bihar, the rainfall is heavier than in any other part of India except Assam, where large tracts of hills and forest reduce the population in proportion to the area, and in southern Burma where there is considerable room for the increase of population and where also there are considerable room for the increase of population and where also there are considerable areas of forest and hills. With India's present population and area we may compare England and Wales with an area of over 58,000 sq. miles and a population of nearly 40,000,000 and a density of 685 persons per. Sq. mile, or Europe as a whole area 3,750,000 sq. miles, population 475,000,000 mean density 127 persons per sq. mile, with the united states of America-area 3,027,000 sq. miles, population 123,000,000 persons per sq. miles 41, or China the area of which including Tibet, Mongolia, Chinese, Turkestan and Manchuria is estimated at 4¼ million sq. miles and the population of which according to the latest estimate, that of professor Willcox, is 342,000,000 giving a density of 80.5 persons per sq. mile, though in the fertile areas of course much heavier than this. Indeed a more useful comparison should be with China proper, having an area of about 1.5 million sq. miles and a genera density of probably 200 to 220 persons per. Sq. mile. It may be added that the total population of the world is now estimated at about 1,850,000,000 and if this be the fact, the population of India forms almost one fifth part of that of the whole world. It should be added, as regards area, that the survey of India is now revising the official figures of the area of districts and provinces which will involves some modification of the figures given in the census reports. Revised figures were not ready in time to be utilized generally at this census, but the necessary changes in area and density are for the most part small and unimportant. 5. The actual increase since 1921 is 33,895,298 that is to say, 10.6 percent on the population at the last census and 39 percent on the population of India fifty years ago and an increase of 12 persons per square mile in 50 years, during which time the increase in area has been principally, if not entirely, confined to comparatively thinly
Census of population Period
Increase
populated areas, and amounts to 426,055 sq. miles. These figures may be compared with an increase in England and Wales since last census of only 5.4 percent, but of 53.8 percent, in the last 50 years, with an increase of nearly 18 percent in Ceylon and with an increase in Java of 20 percent, since the last census and of as much as 26 percent in the outer islands of the Netherlands Indies.
The population of java is of course not comparable with that of India as a whole on account of its small size and limited area, but having (With Madura) the very high density of 817 persons per square mile it is comparable with the more densely populated parts of India already mentioned. This illustrates the fact that the density in India is so variable that it is impossible to consider the question of movement of the population without going into the question of movement of the population without going into the question of the distribution and variation of density, for density of population in India depends not on industry, as in the United Kingdom, but on agriculture, and is greatest of course in the most fertile areas. At this census, however the greatest increase is in the states, where generally speaking the density is lowest, and therefore the increase in the population shown by the figures of this census appears at first sight indicative of pressure upon the margin of cultivation, but while the greatest increase has been in Bikaner (41.9 percent) this must be put down largely to the increase of irrigation and to the consequent immigration from outside, and one of next highest increases is that of Travancore in which the density was already among the highest in India.
The increase in Hyderabad state again is partly to be attributed to an increase of efficiency in the taking of the census and cannot therefore be safely used as a basis of any comparison of the population as it is now and was then. Obviously the greatest increase in population is to be expected in areas such as that Burma where the rainfall is above the mean and the density of the population below it. Where the rainfall and the density are at balance, that is where the population is dense and the rainfall is just adequate as in the southern Punjab, eastern Rajputana, United Provinces, Central India generally and H.E.H. the Nizam's dominions, irrigation has abated the liability to complete loss of crop, and improved communications have made it possible to prevent heavy loss of life in times of scarcity, thus enabling the population to increase on the margin of subsistence. How high a population can be supported by agriculture when conditions are favourable, is shown by Cochin with areas here and there carrying over 2,000 and in one rural unit actually 4,090 persons to the sq. mile on land producing rice and coconuts, but principally the latter which leaves more room for the erection of buildings and brings in a higher return than rice in actual cash.
In such areas, e.g., Cochin and Travancore, the increase in the population has been higher than in the sparsely populated areas like Baluchistan or Jaisalmer State where there is no general extension of irrigation, although there would appear to be more scope for an extension of cultivation. On the other hand when these thickly population areas are examined in detail it appears that the actual rate of increase in population is greatest in the less populated, and less fertile, areas. Thus in Travancore, there are three natural divisions the lowland – very fertile, the midland – less so, and the highlands, where the staple crop is tapioca and where irrigation is not practiced. Now in these three natural divisions the density in 1921 was 1,403 persons to the sq. mile, 700 persons and 53 respectively, which increased during the decade to 1,743,892 and 82 that is by 24.2, 27.4 and 54.7 % respectively, showing a vastly higher rate of increase in the area of least density which is also the area of least fertility, though not as great a numerical increase. Similarly in Bengal the greatest rate of increase has been in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, and in Madras in the Nilgiris. Where, therefore, there is a population already dense, there is a clearly perceptible spread towards the less profitable land.
The increase of population has also been dependent in some cases on migration, while, on the other hand, the apparent increase may have depended on the failure to migrate. Thus the increase of 35% in Ahmadnagar district, a rather barren upland in the Deccan which suffers from recurring famines, is not due so much to a series of good years or to an extension of cultivation on the subsistence margin, as to trade depression, resulting in numbers of the population staying at home instead of migrating to the ports of Bombay and elsewhere where in normal years they are employed during the census months of February and March. Bombay shows a corresponding decrease, probably due, in the particular case of Bombay, largely to the same cause. Other decreases there are which are not so easy to explain.
6. Immigration, when India is taken as a whole, influences the population very little. Table VI shows 730,562 persons as born outside India as against 603,526 in 1921, without taking count in either case of persons born in French or Portuguese possessions. The increase is almost entirely in persons born in Asiatic countries. Against this there must be set off on account of emigration about one million persons who are estimated as having emigrated during the decade under reviews. Migration, however, is of more importance as affecting internal fluctuations of populations, varying in British India from 1,244,249 (net) immigrants into Assam o 15,536 (net) immigrants into the North – West Frontier Province. These figures however include all those whose birth-place was outside the province, and do not refer to the decade 1921 – 31 only. If we take the actual increase due to immigration during the decade in Assam it is found to be only 121,648* consequently if a percentage be taken on the increase of population Assam owes only 10.5 percent of its increase to immigration, though its immigration figure is the highest among all provinces. Conversely Bihar and Orissa with the greatest loss by emigration shows an increase of 10.8 a little more
than that for all India, in spite of the fact that the total loss by emigration is equivalent to almost a third of the actual figure of increase. Migration as between British India and the states has tended in the past to be from the latter to the former, but during the last decade this position has been reversed and the trend of generally lower. Bikaner, where the immigrations total 161,303, i.e., 58% of its increase in population, is a striking instance ; the greater number of its immigrants (about 54%) come from British India, and while the natural increase of the population of Bikaren State plus the normal immigration as recorded in 1921 would have resulted in a general increase of 28% and thereby brought the population back to the 1891 level merely, the increase at this census is much in excess may be put down entirely to the extension of irrigation.
7. Another factor to be considered is the relation of the birth rate to the death rate and this factor is far from being the same different sections of the population. How far the fecundity of different races and castes in India is the result of environment and how far it may have become an inherited racial trait fixed at some period in the past history of the people, and how far it depends on prevailing social practices, is extremely difficult to determine in the light of the existing information, but it is to show that there is marked variation in different parts of India and this question will be reverted to in the chapters on age and sex. Meanwhile it is enough to point out that in India the birth rate is everywhere much higher than in Europe, largely on account of the university of marriage, the Parsis being perhaps the only Indian community in which late marriage and small families are the rule instead of the exception. The birth rate is lower among the Hindus than in most of other communities probably to some extent on account of the general disapproval of widow remarriage, resulting in larger numbers of women being unreproductive at the child bearing age, and to some extent on that of the greater prevalence of immature maternity. On the other hand, the high birth rate of India is largely discounted by a high death rate, particularly among infants as also apparently among women at child birth.
Here again social factors have to be reckoned with, the customs of purdah perhaps exercising its worst effect among the poorer class of Muslims who appear to be more rigid in its observance than the corresponding class of Hindus. This effect is particularly noticeable in crowded urban areas, in which the space available to a women in purdah and poor circumstance is so small as seriously to affect her health. In the matter of epidemics and of deaths from famine or want, the decade has been particularly favorable to an increase in population. It is true that the influenza epidemic at the end of the previous decade is believed to have fallen most severally on the most reproductive ages and should therefore have had a much more lasting effect than the reduction caused by famine which takes in the decade under review, and every year sees improved methods of fighting such epidemics as cholera, plague or Kala azar. Indeed a completely effective treatment for the latter pest has been perfected since the last census, and has made it possible to stamp out the disease. The antimony treatment of kala azar was discovered as early as 1931, but the original treatment took three months to apply and therefore did little to prevent the epidemic. The treatment with organic antimony compounds, introduced about 1917, reduced the period of treatment o a month. The improved treatment introduced during the 1921-31 decade however cures the disease in ten days or even less.
Excludes Aden † The variation shown in this column would of course be less in the case of excesses or more in the case of excesses or more in the case of deficiency had the population under registration shown column 5 been annually adjusted by deducting reported deaths and adding reported births. A brief reference to vital statistics will be found in Section 76 (Chapter IV) below. In view of the admitted inaccuracy of these statistics in many provinces, the discrepancy between the 1931 population as it should have been according to those statistics and as it was found to be by the census is no cause for surprise. The figures are shown in the marginal table, and a calculation of the intercensal population will be found at the end of the chapter in subsidiary Table III, while subsidiary Tables VIII to XI contain additional material with reference to vital statistics.
8. As regards scarcity, improvements in communications, and consequently in case of distribution, nowadays prevent anything like the famine mortality of a century ago, while taking India as a whole the decade ending in 1931 was a prosperous one in the matter of crops, the general economic depression that has supervened having been little apparent outside one or two restricted areas unti 1931 itself, so that for a population mainly agricultural the conditions have been very favourable to an increase in population Nevertheless the decade opened, as it has since closed, in gloom. The frontier was disturbed ; the effects of influenza and the bad monsoon of 1920 were still active; trade was depressed; prices were high; finances were embarrassed, and the non co-operation movement was rampant. From this position there was a rapid recovery; a series of good harvests followed almost all over India
In Bengal there were floods, it is true, and floods proved to be the principle cause of local distress and scarcity during the decade in India generally, as no province completely escaped the inundation of some portion in the ten years under review. But taking India as a whole the first five years were generally above the average, or little below it. Famines were local and not very serious, though one unfortunate district in Madras had famine declared in it officially in three seasons. Almost to the end of the decade the prices of cotton remained consistently remunerative. The end of the decade showed the most deterioration from this average of agricultural
prosperity. Scarcity in some parts e.g., in the United Provinces, and the heavy fall in prices of agricultural produce recreated a position not unlike that of the beginning of the decade, but with the additional embarrassment of a population greatly increased by the
intervening prosperity. Wages however did not fall as rapidly as prices, and up to the time of the census agricultural prosperity on the whole was greater than ten years before, though the increase in population had diminished the size of holdings. Trade and
industry followed much the same course, since the depression, though severely felt by the tea industry as early as 1928, had only just become general by the time of the census. On the other hand much permanent improvement had been carried out in communications everywhere, and a new port for ocean going steamers had been constructed at cochin and another begun at Vizagapatanam. Above all a number of large schemes of irrigation and hydroelectric power development have been completed, particularly in the northwest and south of India. Public. Health has been exceptionally good during the decade; cholera and plague took much less than their usual toll of life, and kalazar was suppressed by the perfection of an easy cure. The comparative deposits in savings banks and state of co-operative societies indicate the general rise in prosperity throughout the decade in 1921 and 1931, tables of which are given in the statements below:
- Included Sind in 1920-21 only †Includes Baluchistan in 1921-21 only. The number of Co operative Societies has more than doubled during the decade, which opened with 47,503 societies and closed with over 100,000, while the number of members of primary societies increased from 1,752,904 to 4,308,262 of whom more than two thirds are agricultural. Five states which did not appear at all in the statements of 1920-21 have
been added to the returns of 1931-31, viz, Cochin, Gwalior, Indore, Jammu and Kashmir and Travancor. It will be seen therefore that inspite of the decline at the end of the decade into a condition of low prices, trade depression non co-operation and rebellion, this time in Burma, similar to that with which the decade opened if not worse, there still remained at its close many of the economic benefits accumulated during the interval, though they are subject to the greatly enhanced liability of the additional population of approximately 34 millions to the propagation of which the prosperous years had so greatly contributed.
Provincial distribution and variation
9. Ajmer Merwara is a small province with an area a little less than that of Co. cork or a little more than that of Devon shire and a population of little more than of all Connaught or of Midlothian. It is administered by commissioner under the Agent to the Governor general in India for Rajputana, by the states of which it is entirely surrounded, and consists of the city and sub division of Ajmer, the adjacent but detached sub-division of Kekri, and the tahsils of Merwara,
10. Of the Andaman and Nicobar islands, which form the charge of a chief Commissioner directly under the Governments of India, the islands of Great Andaman are in the process of development from a penal to free settlement, the aboriginal population being far on the road to extinction. The density of the Andamans is 7.66.
Sentinel island and little Andaman are still inhabited by Andamanese only, and the Nicobarese except for a few foreigner traders, who come to the islands for pearl shell, bechede-mer, and coconuts, by an Assistant Commissioner and by a few police. The density of the Nicobars is 16.1 persons numerous element in the population of the Andamans has been much reduced on account of the policy of abolishing transportation to the Andamans. The figures of the foreign population, including convicts and ex- convicts, show a steady increase of Burmese and Karens. The climate suits them and they are accustomed to similar surrounding and the indications are that the permanent population of the islands will ultimately be predominately Burmese.
The most striking figures for these islands are those for the indigenous Negrito population which has shown a decrese respectively of 42,30,40 and 41 % at each successive census of this century and a total decrease of over 75% since 1901 alone. If the present rate of decrease continue much longer the Andamanese will be extinct by the end of this century. The census Superintendent in his report is content to damn with faint praise the policy of civilizing the aborigines and the institution of the ‘Andaman Home', but that policy, now abandoned, resulted in the space of decades in a greater curtailment of human life than the Andamanese themselves are likely to have effected by their more direct methods in as many centuries. In the Nicobars on the other hand, whence the penal settlement was removed in 1888, there has been an increase of 10.4 percent since 1921 in spite of the deficiency of females, who are only 881 to every 1,000 males. The ratio was 769 females per 1,000 males, and by 40 per mile during the present century. If Nicobarese of tribal religion alone be examined the increase in the sex ratio is from 866 females per 1,000 males in 1921 to 939 in 1931.
11. Assam with a present population of a nine and quarter million shows an increase since 1921 of 15.7 %. The decade from the point of view of public health has been "the best in the history of Assam", and the tea industry, which is, of course, the main industry of the province beyond ordinary agriculture, was on the whole in a flourishing condition, starting the decade with a recovery from the depression of 1919-21, booming in 1923 and 1924 and remaining prosperous until the end of 1927, when the present depression began to be felt as a result of foreign competition and over production. The increase in population, in spite of being the highest recorded in Assam, has been mainly due to natural increase and not to an increase by immigration which only formed ten percent of the total. The general economic condition of the cultivator does not seem to have deteriorated up to 1929 in spite of a general tendency to decay on the part of the cottage industries. Up to that year the price of agriculture produce had increased and expenditure on luxuries was found by the Assam Banking Enquiry Committee to have expenditure on marriage and other ceremonies. This had involved increased indebtedness and "the average agriculturist has not learned the importance of saving". The increase in population has extended to the valley, which is the most denesly populated part and but little affected by migrants. The area of the province has been lated part and but is lowest in the Surma Valley, which is the most densily populated part and but little Administrative and Natural Division Area in sq. Miles
affected by migrants. The area of the province has been slightly extended on the frontier towards Burma, but that extension of area has only accounted for 1.25 % of the increase. The area of Assam is 67,334 sq. miles and its population is 9,247,857 having a mean density of 137 to the square mile. This density, however, is a very variable matter. In the Surma Valley the density is 438 per square mile, and naturally the increase in population has been least in this area. In the Brahmputra valley it is 171, and it is in this area that immigration is most active; in the hills, which generally speaking afford a scanty subsistence to scattered villages, the density is only 39. There are no industrial towns in the province of any size or importance. The Population is of a very mixed character. In Shan tribes mostly Hinduised, and with an aristocracy
aristocracy of caste Hindus ultimately of foreign extraction but, like the small Muslims population settled in the 17 th century, completely identified with the country and the people of the valley by a residence of many generations. The recent immigrants consist either or tea garden coolies, mostly aboriginals from the Madras Agency tracts, the Central provinces and Chota Nagpur, who take up land and settle down in the country, and of Muslims cultivaors from Maimansingh Districts in Bengal who have of recent years swarmed into the lower districts of the valley and opened up large areas of waste land. Profile breeders and industrious cultivators but unruly and uncomfortable neighbors, these immigrants threaten to swamp entirely the indigenous inhabitants and in the course of two or three decades to change the whole nature, language and religion of the Brahmputra valley and to assimilate it to the Muslims areas of Sylhet, where the population is not Assamese but essentially Bengali, whether Muslims or Hindu. In the other districts of the Surma Valley, the plains part of Cachar, the last stronghold of the Kachari kings and once completely Kachari in character, has become a Bengali colony entirely submerging the indigenous Kachari, who has retained his tribal nationality only in the North Cachar Hills. There as in the intrusion of the plainsmen whether Bengali or Assamese and maintaining their own languages and distinctive cultures and racially belonging for the most part to Burma rather than to India.
12. Baluchistan, the most sparsely population of any province of India, occupies an important strategical position between Afghanistan, India and Persia, while the peninsula and immediate hinterland of Gwadar on its south west coast is in the possession of the Sultan of Muscat and excluded from the scope of the Census of India. The province consists of British Baluchistan, of agency territories, of tribal areas and of the States of Kalat and Las Bela; the agency territories are grouped with British Territory for administrative purposes and include four tahsils held on lease
from the khan of Kalat. British Baluchistan covers 7% only of the total area of the province and contains 16% of the total population, but these figures become 40 and 53 respectively if all the areas under British administration area added to what is strictly British territory. In an area so scattered that the charge of a single enumerator involved the traveling of distance of from 50 to 150 miles, a generally synchronous census was obviously an impossibility, and the regular synchronized census on the standard schedule covered only 200 square miles and a population mostly alien. The difficulties of obtaining an accurate census are further enhanced by the nomadic character of the population, which is constantly moving from one part of the country to another in search of pasturage or work, and by the periodic movements not only of the local population, which is constantly moving from one part of the country to another in search of pasturage or work, and by the periodic movements not only of the local population towards Sind, Afghanistan or Persia in the autumn, but also of foreign nomads from Afghanistan into and through Baluchistan is 6 persons per sq. mile, a little more than Tibet with 4 and about the same as Newfoundland exclusive of Labrador; but this density falls in the Chagai districts to 1 square mile. The decade started with a period of famine resulting from the drought of 1920-21 and although the years 1923-25 were good the later years were afflicted by locusts and the decade as whole was below the usual level of prosperity.
As a result of famine and scarcity and of the damage done by the invading sands of the Chagai deserts, which bury and lay waste the cultivated areas to the south and east of them and choke both sources and channels of irrigation, the province lost some thousands of its scanty indigenous population by migration. Prices ruled high until 1931 when they fell to a level phenomenally low. Health was poor and to the disease, which naturally follows famine, conditions were added serious epidemics of cholera, small pox and measles. A general increase of motor traffic has almost caused the disappearance of animal drawn vehicles during the decade, and 132 miles have been added to railways. The population increased by 69,000 of which 39,500 represents a natural increase, but the phenomenal increase of 45.5 percent in the tribal areas is not entirely beyond suspicion, and if the natural population of Baluchistan be alone considered, the 1911 figure has not yet been recovered. The population is far from uniform in character comprising as it does Brahui, Baloch, Lasi and Makrani with their satellite tribes of Loris, Dehwars, Langahs and Naqibs to say nothing of Pathans and Jatts and Persians. The country is of great historical importance and the researches in recent years of sir Aurel Stein indicate that Baluchistan was once a fertile country supporting a large population, where it now offers a scanty subsistence steadily dwindling under the encourage sand.
13. Bengal, ninth of the provinces of India is area, is first respect of population. The British districts cover 77,521 521 sq. miles, exclusive of large surfaces river and estuary, and the Bengal states 5,434. To these for census purposes was added Sikkim another 2,818 sq.miles. Thirty sq. miles have been added since 1921 from Bihar and Orissa but changes in calculation of areas have increased the size shown in the tables by an additional 678 sq. miles. The total population returned is 51,087,338 for Bengal (of which 50,114,002 were in British and 93,336 in state territory) and 109,808 for Sikkim , the population of Bengal being more than one sixth of the total for British India. The density in British Bengal is now 646 persons per sq. mile per sq. mile, while that Sikkim is
only 39. excluding Calcutta the density of Bengal varies from 2,105 in Howrah district to 43 in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, but by far the greater part of the province has a density is found in many places, Dacca Divisions having a mean density of 935, Munshiganj Sub-divisions of 2,413 and Lohajang thana of 3,228 per sq. mile. The rate of increase of population has been 7.3 % since 1921 and that of Sikkim 34.4%. Cooch Bihar State is one of the few in India that shows a decrease since 1921. This decrease, 0.27 % is entirely Hindu (--4.76%) and is attributed to the expansion of settled cultivation by Muslims which has the effect of driving the Hinduised tribes, Koch, Mech, Poliya, etc., into the foothills or eastwards into Assam a process observed likewise in the adjoining Bengal Districts. It is also suggested that this decrease is partly due to changes in social custom, such as the abandonment of widow remarriage as part of a campaign of social elevation and to changes in the environment unfavorable to pre existing adaptations. Tripura state on the other hand, with only 93 persons to the sq. mile has experienced an increase of 25.6% and the thinly populated Chittagong Hill tracts one of 22.9%. Conditions during the decade from the economic standpoint are described as having been "not entirely unsatisfactory" Harvests have been generally good and prices high until 1929, though there have been severe floods in three years, some cyclones and an earth quake. Wages were high till 1930, but their high level was of little benefit to middle class families with fixed incomes,
and it was the skilled workman who reaped the most benefit. In industry cotton mills have been prosperous throughout, and jute until 1929; tea was prosperous till 1927; coal has not been prosperous. Throughout Bengal there seems to have been a general rise in the standard of living, not shown in an improved or more expensive diet, though it is reported that the need for a better-balanced dietary is indicated by the fact that an ordinary cultivator is found to improve and gain weight on prison fare, but in minor amenities such as umbrellas and shoes, shirts and coats "now worn by thousands who would never have dreamt of wearing then ten years ago", while the hurricane lantern, is almost universally displacing the indigenous oil lamp. In some areas union boards are taking advantage of their powers to tax the union for schemes of village improvement such as the clearing of jungle, maintenance of roads and the excavation of tanks or wells. On the other hand increased earnings have not led to any reduction of the indebtedness of the riot or laborer. The average debt of an agricultural family seems to be about Rs. 180 and that of a non-agricultural one perhaps a little more, while the average debt of the total population is about Rs. 166 per households.
The debts of members of co-operative societies have increased by 3.5% to which borrowing to forestall the Sarda Act has largely contributed. In an interesting examination of the population question printed as an appendix to this chapter the Census Superintendent reaches the conclusion that Bengal might have a population of some 53 millions in 1941, and that the maximum population will be from 68 to 74 millions; that the Hindu population has passed the point at which the rate of increase accelerates in successive decades and is approaching a stationary population, whereas the Muslim population has not yet progressed so far along its present cycle of growth but will ultimately be to the Hindu as 4 to 3; and that Bengal could support at the present standards of living nearly double its present
14. Bihar and Orissa has a heterogeneous population of 42,329,583 in an area of 111,702 sq. miles giving a mean density of 379 per sq. mile, of which 28,648,sq. miles consist of feudatory States which contain more than 4½ millions of the population. The increase of the province has been 11.5% since 1921. The population falls naturally into three areas which do not correspond to its administrative divisions, that is into Bihar (exclusive of the Santal Parganas), the Chota Nagpur plateau together with the Santal Parganas and the Feudatory States, and Orissa proper. The mean density gives little indication of its great variation, which is as high as 969 persons per sq. miles in the Muzzaffarpur district of Bihar, with a density of 1,073 if calculated on cultivatable area, and as low as 43 in the Feudatory State of Rairakhol. In previous decades the number of emigrants has very greatly exceeded the number of immigrants. This excess has been considerably reduced during the past ten years.
But these conditions have been confined to British territory, for in the states there has been in the past an excess of immigrants over emigrants which has been similarly reduced during the past decade. The public health has been exceptionally good throughout he decade, mortality from plague having decreased by about 73% and from cholera by about 30%. At the same time, though the birth rate has fallen from 41 per mile to 36.5, the survival rate has more than doubled. Earners profited by a general decline in the cost of living, while cultivators also benefited during the greater part of the decade not only by a succession of good harvests but by the fact that the prices of food grains retained a high level after other prices had fallen.
There have been heavy investment in post office 5 year cash certificates; in the Pos office savings bank the number of depositors has rises since 1921 by deposits by 102%. The standard of comfort has everywhere risen among the labouring classes, while an outstanding change in diet is the development of tea drinking. It has already been pointed out that the population of this province is heterogeneous. That of Bihar is not markedly dissimilar to the population of the east of the United Provinces on the one hand or the west of Bengal on the other, between the populations of which it forms a natural link, and may be regarded as normal Hindustani speaking population of the Ganges Valley. In Orissa proper the population is more nearly allied to that of lower Bengal, but has a distinctive culture of its own. The chota Nagpur Plateau and the Santal Paraganas are primarily the habitat of comparatively Munda speaking tribes and of others speaking Dravidian languages but closely allied to them in race. Sambalpur and Angul are not dissimilar and the inhabitants of the Feudatory States are also of the same kind, though Oriya replaces Hindi on the southern slopes of the plateau as the medium of communication with the more civilized world.
15. Bombay in 1921 included the area, which in 1931 was enumerated as the western India states agency, and on this occasion therefore its area was reduced to 151,593 square miles (excluding Aden), having a population of 26,347,519 and a mean density of 14. Even with this reduction Bombay remains larger than any province except Burma and Madras. It comprises not only the British districts of the Bombay presidency proper, but the Bombay states and agencies and clued the whole of the Aden settlement and Perim, but not the Aden Protectorate. An entirely separate volume (IX) deals with the cities of the Bombay Presidency, which is far ahead of any other province in India in the proportion of its urban to rural population, if we exclude Delhi and Ajmer Merwara, where the principal until of the province is itself a town.
In Bombay city itself the population has actually fallen since 1921, partly probably because the economic depression which had set in by the census of 1931had driven back to their homes the countrymen who normally come down to Bombay to work during the cold whether and partly no doubt owing to suburban expansion, but every other unit in the confines of the Presidency proper has increased in population during the decade and the general rate of increase, 13.7%, is well above that of India as a whole. In the case of the cities the increase was probably greater than that actually shown, since the municipal authorities did not in all cases co – operate whole-heartedly, while some were definitely obstructive. In Surat, Kaira, Villeparle and Broach at any rate the enumeration was probably defective, and at Ahmedabad it was made impossible to carry it out at all in many parts of the city. For that town therefore an estimate has been made of the numbers not enumerated and added to the actual returns for the purposes of all tables
in which details by religion, age, etc, are not required. Aden alone has fallen while the Bombay state and even more, Sind have increased at a higher rate than the province as a whole, though Sind has been visited by disastrous floods and in 1929-30 revenue to the extent of Rs.57, 71,940 had to be remitted on account of damage by locusts. In marked contrast to all the decades since 1891 no district has suffered from a single very bad season during the whole period under review. Five seasons of the ten were good and five were moderate, and the fact that the prices of food grains fell more slowly than most others while cotton remained exceptionally high was of great benefit to the cultivator. At the same time wages and the demand for labour showed a tendency to rise rather than to fall until 1930, and then did not fall proportionately to the drop in prices. In the towns the decade was also one of prosperity until 1927-28, and in the earlier half of the decade urban labour seems to have reached an unprecedented standard of comfort, but at the end of the period the trade depression, aggravated by the civil disobedience movement, caused much unemployment and discomfort.
16. The census of Burma was taken on February 24 th two days earlier than that of India proper on account of local festivals which made the 26 th an inconvenient date. Though only eighth in order of population figures, Burma is by far the largest of the provinces of the Indian Empire, having an area of 261,610 sq. miles, of which 233,492 were covered by the census operations of 1931.The population censused is 14,667,146 having increased by 11% since 1921, part of which increase as near as can be estimated 320,000* persons, is due to immigration from India. The figures in the marginal table give the variation by "natural" divisions, but these divisions are administrative and racial
rather than geographical. Thus the Burman division represents the plains districts of administratered Burma in which the population is primarily (94%) Burmese, though it includes the remnants of the Mons of Pegu, the main bulk of the Karens, who appear also in the Salween and Shan divisions in smaller numbers, and a considerable share of the total number of Chins, Kachins and other indigenous races. It contains nearly all the Chinese other than Yunnanse, that is to say almost two thirds of the total, and practically all the other foreigner Indo-Burmese population. The Chin division contains for practical purpose Chins and no one else. The Salween division, consisting as it does primarily of the Karenni, the only area in Burma with the status of an Indian State, has a population purely Karen and Tai. The shan division, constituted by good many Karens and Barmans, almost all the Yunnanese (who make up more than a third of the total Chinese in Burma), almost the whole of the Palaung War branch of the Mon Khmel race, many Kachins, about half the other indigenous decade has been considerable and has added about 10,000 to the population of the Northern Shan States, while Indians, largely Gurkhas from Nepal, have added another 11,000 to the Northern and 5,000 to the southern Shan
States. In the salween division the population of the Karenni states dereased, and the increase in the rest of that division was largely due to the mines in Salween District. The chin division has increased not only by the natural growth during a prosperous decade but by the inclusion of previously unadministered country on the Assam border. As far as climate conditions went the decade was normal and floods and droughts were confined to small areas and involved no widespread calamities comparable with those which befell some parts of India, though the towns of Pegu was destroyed by a disastrous earthquake which did damage elsewhere as well. Burma grows more rice than her population consumes, and although cultivable land is not readily capable of extension the area under irrigation was extended by some 317,000 acres during the decade. Industrial expansion, particularly in the production of oil, has been important in some districts and railways have extended by 434 miles. There has been some increase in mining activity in spite of the slump in silver and baser metals. The fall in the price of paddy was perhaps the most serious features of the decade economically. The marginal table shows the wholesaleThe out break coincided, of course, with the census, but luckily the preliminary enumeration could everywhere be completed in undisturbed conditions except in Tharrawaddy District and a small part of Pegu, where there was inevitably some under enumeration. The rebellion spread to Henzada before the final enumeration, but the preliminary enumeration had already been completed
- Vide chapter I of Burma Census Report, 1931, paragraph 14
17. The central provinces and Berar, an area totaling 131,095 square miles, include not only the British districts, 82,153 sq. miles, and the fifteen states of the central provinces, 31,175 sq. miles, but the four districts of Berar 17,767 which are leased in perpetuity from H.E.H. the Nizam. The total area of the province according to the latest revision is 133,050 sq. miles, but this figure was
obtained too late for use in the tables. The total population is 17,990,937 with a mean density of 137 per sq. miles still covered by forest. The highest density is that of the Katghora Tahsil which has 492 persons to the sq. mile, and the lowest that of the Azhiri Zamindari with only 16. Famines and epidemics have been responsible for exceptional fluctuations in the past, and the central province more than any other are marked by recurring alternations between good and bad years.
The decade under review opened in conditions of scarcity and high prices, while the effect of the influenza epidemic upon women of the child bearing ages can be traced in certain age groups at the present census. Up to the end of 1921 public health was bad. Cholera, plague and malaria caused exceptional mortality. In 1922 however the satisfactory monsoons of that and the previous year reduced the death rate from 44 to 29, though the birth rate also fell from 38 to 36 per 1,000. Good monsoons and healthy years continued until 1926-2, which was marked by serious floods, and 1927-28 saw the beginning of the decline in prosperity. Wheat was attacked by rust and more than half of the crop was lost in the northern districts of the province in that year and health deteriorated. The following year brought the recurrence of non co operation, agrarian agitation and general depression, another unsatisfactory agricultural year in the north of the province, and much unhealthiness from cholera, plague, small pox, influenza and Malaria. On the whole, however, the intervening prosperity more than balanced the depression at either end of the decade.
The net area cropped increased from 23,585,215 acres to 25,364,36 ; the addition of a thousand miles of irrigation channels added nearly a hundred thousand acres of irrigated land; a thousand miles of metalled road were added to the existing metalled roads, and many new bridges and 300 miles of railway. It is significant of the connection between prosperity and population that the growth of the latter was very small in the north of the province which suffered three very bad years at the end of the decade. Elsewhere, as in other provinces, the highest rate of increase was in the most thinly populated areas. The infant mortality rate appears to be higher in the central provinces than in India as a whole or in most other parts of India, but the rate of increase at this census has been 12.6% for the province. Both the natural features and the population are very varied. The Narbada valley in the north is a wheat growing tract; the Maratha plain in the west and the Chhatishgarh plain in the east are rice growing areas; the central plateau and the Chota Nagpur plateau in the north east like the states of Bastar and Kanker and the district of Chanda in the south are largely forest. In the open country Marathi is the language of the west and Hindi of the east, but the forest tribes speak Dravidian or Munda languages. In Bastar State, the remotest part of the province, there has been much increase in communication, but the Administrator reports that the increase in traffic is leading to an increases in the consumption of opium and the case of one tahsil to the substitution for opium of the much more pernicious mercury.
18. Coorg, smallest after Delhi of the province of India, is the only one which showed a decrease of population at the census of 1931. It is administered by a chief commissioner , who combine this office with that of Resident in Mysore, and has a council of 15 elected and 5 nominated members. Its area is 1,593 sq. miles with a population of 163,327,511 less that is than in 1921, and a
density of 103 persons per sq. mile. The decrease in population is probably greater than the figures indicate, since there has been a decrease of about 5,000 persons in the natural population most of which is balanced by an increase in immigrants more apparent than real, since it consists mostly of laborers who leave the province for their homes in March. In 1921 the census fell earlier before the exodus had started. The vital statistics showed an excess in deaths over births of 14,000, thought
it is stated of the average individual in coorg that his desire "appears to be to have as many children as possible, irrespective of his economic position". Coffee plantations on an important scale as well as cardmom plantations on the of rubber and agave are being abandoned, but the staple crop is rice of which the province produces more than it consumes. Both for rice and coffee the decade was favorable except for the heavy floods in 1924. The fall in rice prices, stedly till 1929, at the end of the decade caused paddy to be sold at exceedingly low rates and the area under rice cultivation to decrease from 84,587 to 82,822 acres. Urban population has increased and a general increase in the number of occupied houses points to the gradual dissolution of the joint family system prevalent in Coorg.
19. Delhi is the smallest and most recently constituted of the province of India. It came into being as a province on the laying of the foundation stone of New Delhi by His Majesty the king Emperor in December 1911, and as a result of the establishment there of the imperial capital its growth has been phenomenal. It is of course primarily an urban unit and the total area of the
province is only 573 sq. miles, but the population is 636,246 persons with a mean density of 1,110 persons per sq. mile. This density varies from 58,23 persons per sq. mile in old Delhi municipality to 372 in the rural area, where the increase during the decade has been only 3% as compared with 30.3% for the province as a whole. This rapid increase is due to the abnormal growth of a newly established capital, and is very largely due to immigration, since the gross balance of migration in Delhi's favour is 189,594 persons, of which the census Superintendent regards 111,775 as the actual net increase by migration during the decade since 1921. This growth in population has outstripped the rapid building of houses and in the urban area the density per 100 houses has increased from 410 in 1921 to 454 in 1931. The censused population of the urban areas however (447,442) probably falls to about 330,000 in the hot weather, which is likely to be no more and possibly even less than its permanent population at the height of its importance in the reign of Shahjahan.
20. Madras Covering 142,277 sq. miles populated by 46,740,107 persons, is second among the major provinces in area, third in population and fifth in density (329), but in rate of increase seventh exceeding only Bengal and the United Provinces the higher population figure of which it is fast overhauling. Its rate of increase for whole Indian Empire. The total irrigated area has increased by some 66,000 acres, that is by 0.90 % only, but important new works are projected. The decrease in the value of the crops raised has been nearly 46% which indicates not a fall in the quantity of the crop but in the level of prices. At the same time possibilities of agriculture on present methods have more or less reached a maximum and the Presidency can no longer feed itself.
The decade was healthy and not only has it been free from epidemics but the skilled research of colonel Russel, the director of public health, has made it possible to cope with epidemics when they arise, and in the case of cholera to predict their occurrence and so to forestall their virulence. Cholera, which is endemic in the south of the presidency, has proved to have a six year cycle. The vital statistics of Madras are worthy of reference since this province is the only one whose registration of birth and death approaches anything like a satisfactory standard. Even so in 1930 some 62,000 unregistered births and 20,000 unregistered deaths were detected by inspecting officers in the presidency. In some parts of Madras emigration takes place on a larger scale to Assam, Burma, Ceylon and Malaya, the annual loss being some 13,000 and though the decline in the planting industry has resulted in large numbers of from Burma. As in the accuracy of her vital statistics, Madras is ahead of other provinces in the matter of birth control. A tendency is observed by the census superintendent for men at any rate to marry later, and contraceptive methods are advocated by influential persons and widely advertised in the press. The census Superintendent writes " ten years should show a marked growth in their popularity. Books on the subject are to be found in any bookstall or publisher's list and that they can fail to exert some influence". He adds, as a portent, that contraception of a crude kind has been observed among the Goundans of Salem to prevent large families, the fragmentation of holding and the weakening of the joint family system.
The external boundaries have not altered. Internally there have been some changes between districts the most important of which has been the re absorption in the three neighboring plains districts of the agency division, a hilly tract inhabited by Khonds, Sawaras, and similar hill tribes and quite alien to the plains districts which have absorbed it.
- Excluding states
The mean density is 329 but density varies greatly in different areas being only 329 but density varies greatly in different areas being only 89 persons to the square mile in the agency tracts and 471 on the west coast, though one districts the plains of Godavari East, on the coromandel coast reaches a higher density (660) than Malabar itself with 610. There is a greater tendency to city life in
Madras than in any major province but Bombay, but the towns are far less industrial in character than that of the latter province. Nevertheless signs of industrial development are appearing and cotton mills are springing up at small country centers supplied by the cotton growing areas they adjoin. Thus Pollachi, a small town in Coimbatore district, had six mills in 1921 but thirty in 1931. Cheap power from water is a possibility and the use of electricity is steadily advancing in popularity, as the decade has seen many towns with oil lamps or no lamps adopt electric lighting and fans. The standard of living is rising and in ten years the villager has "become accustomed to and takes as necessities what formerly were rather unlooked for luxuries. The great advance in communications which the motor but and car has brought has contributed enormously to widening horizons"
21. The northwest Frontier Province has an area of 36,356 sq. miles with a population of 4,684,364 and a mean density of 129 per sq. mile, but of this area 22,838 sq. miles constitute the Trans frontier agencies, of the population of which 2,259,288 (density99) and leaving 2,425,076 persons in the five regularly administered districts with an area of 13,518 sq. square miles and a mean density of 179, an area a little greater than that of Holland with a population a little less than that of Denmark. Since 1921 the Malandri tract, 20 sq. miles, has been added to the administered from the unadministered area and 4 sq. miles have been transferred from Kohat District to the former. Otherwise there has been no territorial change. The density of population in the administered areas exclusive of urban population varies according to the combined factor of rainfall
+ irrigable land, decreasing from north to south. The growth of population has depended mainly on the extension of canal irrigation. The Kabul River Canal reached its maximum area of irrigation in 1921 and the Upper Swat canal in 1929. When the decade opened the agricultural was bad and the frontier was disturbed, a condition which, however, benefits the inhabitants of the administered districts financially. Both contractors and unskilled labour do well and "to the Path an of fighting age times of unrest call up memories of a princely pay earned in princely idleness, guarding with a government rifle and the prestige of his race some lonely spot on a winding frontier road". The situation on the frontier improved rapidly, but this improvement was followed by outbreaks all over the province culminating in the very serious riots of April 1930 in Peshawar with inevitable repercussions among the border tribes, though the situation was restored in time for the census to be taken generally under normal conditions.
Agriculturally the decade was satisfactory until 1924, less satisfactory from 1924 to 1928 but improved from 1928 to 1930 when a deficient fall of rain and an excessive fall in prices combined to reduce greatly the area sown for crops. Rs. 22,06,956 of revenue were remitted on account of damage by loctus in the years 1929-30. Public health was bad in the first half of the decade, which the Census Superintendent attributes to the after effects of the influenza epidemic, but the second half was one of " uninterrupted good health" which "restored to the people their normal vitality" and the increase of population in the administered districts since 1925, and in 1926 there were 16 societies with a membership of 365 and a working capital of Rs.8,92,000. The primary necessity of the province is a settled economic outlook without which an increase in population disproportionate to that in wealth and productive efficiency will involve poverty and discontent and in all probability a destructive agitation and very serious disturbance.
22. The Punjab is the eighth province in India in area, but with the Punjab states agency fourth in area, sixth in density and fifth in population. It has an area of 136,964 sq. miles with a mane density of 208 but this includes not only British districts and the Punjab states but also the Punjab state agency, a separate unit though treated in the same volume. Taken separately British territory has a population of 23,580,852 with a density of 238 but this includes not only British districts and the Punjab states but also the Punjab states agency, a separate unit though treated in the same volume.
Taken separately British territory has a population of 23,580,852 with a density of 238 over 99,265 sq. miles. The area appears in the tables as 99,200 the revised figure having been received too late for in corporation, a condition which also explains the appearance of the area 5,820 in table I as that of the Punjab states instead of the revised area 5,292 square miles with a population of 437,787 and a density of 83. The Punjab states agency has an area of 32,407 sq. miles, a population of 4,472,218 and a mean density of 138. The increases in the Punjab population during the last 40 years is well illustrated by the density of Lyallpur district which was 15% square mile in 1891 and is now 368. The last decade has seen the highest rate of increase yet recorded. It has been a healthy decade, the first half in particular, though in the second half there were plague epidemics in 1924 and 1926, while in 1926 and 1928
there were localized epidemics of cholera. The birth rate, twice that of the United Kingdom, has remained consistently high. Agriculturally the decade has been prosperous. The Sutlej canal system in 1921 fed the Sirhind Canal only; it now irrigates large tracts in Multan, Lahore, Ferozepore and Montgomery districts and in Bahawalpur State, as well as in Bikaner in Rajputana. In the Punjab as a whole canal irrigation has extended, by over 19% and has added 2,000,000 acress irrigated land during the decade, though a drawback to irrigation has appeared in the tendency towards the rise of the subsoil water level, which forces up from below salts which make the surface soil unfit for cultivation.
Agricultural wages remained high until 1928 and have not fallen so rapidly as prices. Agricultural credit has increased its capital 31 lakhs, and an indication of agricultural prosperity is to be found in the rise by 22% in the price of agricultural land. There has been a spread of improved varieties of wheat, cotton and sugar cane and a great advance in the local manufacture of cane mills, ploughs, irrigation wheels and other agricultural implements. In 1921 the census superintendent remarked on the noticeable absence of any local manufactural implements, but now at Batala, in gurdaspur, alone there are 21 iron foundries with an annual output of over 19,000 implements valued at Rs. 537,000. The comparative prosperity and high prices of the earlier part of the decade led to increased interest and activity in the formation of joint stock companies, and factories increased from 297 with 42,428 hands to 526 with 49,549 hands. The extraction of petroleum and within the decade, while the Mandi hydro electric scheme now just completed is likely to hasten the industrialization of the province by the plentiful supply of cheap power. It remains to mention the rural uplift movement started in Gurgaon district in 1931 by Mr. Brayne and taken up elsewhere by the Y.M.C.A. which has also opened in Lahore a broadcasting station which already transmits to 1,500 receivers.
